State-of-the-Art Progress and Outlook in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Magnesium Alloys

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00314

Acta Metall Sin

2025, Vol. 61

Issue (3): 397-419 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00314

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State-of-the-Art Progress and Outlook in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Magnesium Alloys

HUANG Ke(

), LI Xinzhi, FANG Xuewei, LU Bingheng

School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China

Cite this article:

HUANG Ke, LI Xinzhi, FANG Xuewei, LU Bingheng. State-of-the-Art Progress and Outlook in Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Magnesium Alloys. Acta Metall Sin, 2025, 61(3): 397-419.

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Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a promising additive manufacturing process known for its high deposition efficiency and cost effectiveness, making it well-suited for the large-scale production of complex, lightweight magnesium alloy components. Despite these advantages, magnesium alloys present challenges owing to their low melting and boiling points and high thermal conductivity, which result in nonuniform microstructures, metallurgical defects, and residual stresses in WAAM-manufactured components. These issues notably reduce the reliability and service life of the components, making it difficult to meet the demanding requirements of high-end equipment applications. It presents a critical challenge that must be addressed. This review outlines the advantages and technical challenges of WAAM, providing a comprehensive overview of recent domestic and international research in five key areas: process types, forming quality, metallurgical defects, microstructure characteristics, and overall performance. In addition, the present study summarizes in situ modulation strategies besed on the liquid melt pool and solid interlayer, as well as heat treatment and surface strengthening methods, providing a theoretical framework for improving the quality of large and complex magnesium alloy components. Finally, this review discusses future trends and research directions in WAAM for magnesium alloys, with a focus on composition design, in situ modulation, post-treatment processes, and performance evaluation.

Key words: wire-arc additive manufacturing magnesium alloy metallurgical defect microstructure comprehensive performance modulation strategy

Received: 06 September 2024

ZTFLH:

TG669

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(523B2049);National Natural Science Foundation of China(52275374);National Natural Science Foundation of China(52205414)

Corresponding Authors: HUANG Ke, professor, Tel: 13519183706, E-mail: ke.huang@xjtu.edu.cn

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	HUANG Ke
	LI Xinzhi
	FANG Xuewei
	LU Bingheng

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00314 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2025/V61/I3/397

Fig.1 Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) equipment^[19] (a) and WAAM Mg alloy component^[3] (b)

Fig.2 Technical challenges of WAAM Mg alloys
(a) metallurgical defects (BD—building direction, TD—travelling direction, ND—normal direction)^[21,22]
(b) inhomogeneous microstructure (MPC—melt pool center, HAZ—heat affected zone, MPB—melt pool boundary)^[23,24]
(c) mechanical properties^[24,26]

Fig.3 Schematics of various WAAM technologies^[27]
(a) gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) (b) plasma arc welding (PAW)
(c) gas metal arc welding (GMAW) (d) cold metal transfer (CMT)

Fig. 4 Effect of printing parameters on the morphology of deposited single track^[28]

Fig.5 Surface morphologies of single-pass multilayer deposited WE43 alloy components fabricated by four CMT arc modes^[19](a) top view
(b-e) front views of CMT (b), CMT-Pulse (CMT-P) (c), CMT-Advance (CMT-ADV) (d), and CMT-Pulse + Advance (CMT-PADV) (e)

Fig.6 Distribution of defects in thin-walled parts of GW63K Mg alloy fabricated by WAAM^[21]

Fig.7 Distributions of defects in thin-walled parts of AZ31 Mg alloy fabricated by WAAM^[29]
(a) 100 A, 10 V, 400 mm/min (b) 100 A, 10 V, 600 mm/min (c) 100 A, 10 V, 800 mm/min

Fig.8 Distributions of oxide inclusions in the WE43 Mg alloy fabricated by WAAM^[37]
(a) the 1st layer (b) the 16th layer (c) the 24th layer

Fig.9 Grain sizes and crystallographic orientations of the AZ31 Mg alloy fabricated by hot-roll (a), GTAW (b, d), and semi-continuously cast (c)^[35,38]

Fig.10 Precipitation phase characteristics in the GW-series Mg alloy fabricated by cast (a), WAAM (b), and laser directed energy deposition (LDED) (c)^[26]

Fig.11 Grain sizes sand crystallographic orientations in the AZ31 (a)^[24] and GW102K (b)^[26] Mg alloys fabricated by WAAM

Fig.12 Schematics showing the microstructure evolution with layer deposition during WAAM of WE43 alloy^[37]
(a) the 1st layer (b) the 4th layer (c) the 15th layer (d) the top layer

Table 1 Room-temperature tensile properties of the as-deposited and heat-treated Mg alloys fabricated by WAAM under optimized process parameters^{[21,23,25,26,29-33,35-37,39-45]}

Fig.13 Comparisons of potentiodynamic polarization curves for AZ31 Mg alloys prepared by WAAM process and conventional process

Fig.14 Damping capacities of the semi-continuously cast and GTAW-processed AZ31 Mg alloys as a function of strain amplitude^[38] (Q—energy dissipation efficiency)
(a) 1 × 10^-5-2 × 10^-3 (b) 4.4 × 10^-4-1.5 × 10^-3

Fig.15 In situ modulation programs for other metallic materials during the WAAM process (TIG—tungsten inert gas)
(a) laser-arc hybrid additive manufacturing^[50] (b) magnetic arc oscillation^[49] (c) in situ rolling^[51]

Fig.16 Current signals from ultrasonic frequency pulsed arc^[52] (VP—variable polarity, UFPVP—ultrasonic frequency pulsed variable polarity, UFP—ultrasonic frequency pulsed)

Fig.17 Ultrasonic vibration-assisted WAAM equipment^[54]

Fig.18 Effect of interlayer dwell time on the thermal profile^[55] (Insets show the topographies of components)
(a) without interlayer waiting (b) with interlayer dwell time of 60 s

Fig.19 Equipment for interlayer strengthening-assisted WAAM
(a) interlayer hammering equipment^[58]
(b) interlayer ultrasonic impact treatment^[59]
(c) interlayer friction stir processing^[60] (FSP)

Fig.20 Schematics illustrating the mechanisms of microstructure evolution during WAAM process and heat treatment^[26]
(a) non-equilibrium solidification process (b) as-deposited sample
(c) solution treated sample (d) ageing treatment at 150 ^oC for 96 h
(e) ageing treatment at 200 ^oC for 58 h (f) ageing treatment at 250 ^oC for 16 h

Fig.21 Representative TEM characterization results of the laser shock peening treated specimen at depths of 10 μm (a, b), 30 μm (c, d), 100 μm (e, f), and 200 μm (g, h)^[48] (NC—nanocrystallisation, SPD—severe plastic deformation, MPD—medium plastic deformation, DT—dislocation tangle, MT—mechanical twin, DW—dislocation wall)

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