Research Status and Development Trend of Precipitation Phase Regulation and Strengthening Mechanism in Ultra-High Strength Steel

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (7): 1207-1227 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354

Overview

Current Issue | Archive | Adv Search

Research Status and Development Trend of Precipitation Phase Regulation and Strengthening Mechanism in Ultra-High Strength Steel

ZHANG Chaolei(

), PAN Xiaokun, GAO Junheng, WU Honghui, MAO Xinping

Institute for Carbon Neutrality, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

Cite this article:

ZHANG Chaolei, PAN Xiaokun, GAO Junheng, WU Honghui, MAO Xinping. Research Status and Development Trend of Precipitation Phase Regulation and Strengthening Mechanism in Ultra-High Strength Steel. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(7): 1207-1227.

Download:

HTML

PDF(3807KB)
Export: BibTeX | EndNote (RIS)

Abstract

As a key structural material for aviation, aerospace, and major equipment, the lightweight and high-performance development of ultra-high strength (UHS) steel is essential for the advancement of related fields. However, traditional UHS steels have long faced critical challenges: the difficulty in achieving a synergistic combination of high strength, high toughness, good weldability, and corrosion resistance, along with the constraint of high alloy costs that limit their widespread application. To address these issues, we systematically review the development history, composition, microstructure, and performance characteristics of traditional UHS steels, including low-alloy UHS, secondary hardening, maraging, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. We also review the research progress in developing novel UHS steels through two main pathways: the regulation of composite nanoprecipitates and the design of multiphase composite microstructures. Special attention is paid to exploring the potential and preliminary practices of the “hybrid” design concept, which breaks the boundaries of traditional steel classifications and integrates multiple strengthening mechanisms to develop cost-effective, high-performance, and easily weldable “all-round” UHS steels. The current research status regarding the evolution laws of precipitates and strengthening mechanisms in UHS steels is detailed. Finally, the future development directions of UHS steels are proposed, particularly regarding the synergistic control of complex precipitates, high-temperature stability, and industrial application.

Key words: ultra-high strength steel carbide intermetallic compound strengthening mechanism

Received: 03 November 2025

ZTFLH:

TG142.1

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(52574422)

Corresponding Authors: ZHANG Chaolei, professor, Tel: 13581677127, E-mail: zhangchaolei@ustb.edu.cn

	Service

	E-mail this article
	Add to citation manager
	E-mail Alert
	RSS
	（）
	Articles by authors
	ZHANG Chaolei
	PAN Xiaokun
	GAO Junheng
	WU Honghui
	MAO Xinping

URL:

https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I7/1207

Fig.1 Relationship between yield strength and fracture toughness of typical ultra-high strength steel^[1-15] (K_IC—fracture toughness, R_p0.2—yield strength)

Table 1 Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical low-alloy ultra-high strength steels^[17,20-22]

Table 2 Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical medium-high alloy ultra-high strength steels^[9,24,27-32]

Table 3 Chemical compositions, microstructures, key processes, performance characteristics, and drawbacks of traditional ultra-high strength steels^[1,35-37]

Fig.2 Stress-strain curves (a), TEM image and SAED pattern (inset) (b), atomic image taken from 110 and corresponding FFT patterns (c), and 3D-APT elemental distribution of precipitates (d) in the novel maraging steel^[38] (% in Fig.2d represents atomic fraction)

Fig.3 Microstructure morphologies and observation direction (a) and engineering stress-strain curves (b) of the ultra-high strength steel subjected to severe plastic deformation and partitioning induced by high dislocation density^[50] (ND—normal direction, TD—transverse direction, RD—rolling direction. a-d in Fig.3b represent steels with different treatment processes)

Table 4 Chemical compositions, microstructures, key processes, mechanical properties, and drawbacks of novel ultra-high strength steels^{[38,41,46,50-53]}

Fig.4 Schematics of three typical additive manufacturing techniques
(a) laser powder bed fusion^[56] (F-θ lens represents flat field focusing lens)
(b) laser directed energy deposition^[58]
(c) wire arc additive manufacturing^[59] (DC—direct current, GMAW—gas metal arc welding, GTAW—gas tungsten arc welding, PAW—plasma arc welding)

Fig.5 “hybrid” design concept (HAZ—heat affected zone)

Fig.6 TEM images showing morphologies of ε-carbide^[76] (a), M₃C^[77] (b), MC^[78] (c), M₂₃C₆^[78] (d), and M₆C^[78] (e) typical carbides in ultra-high strength steels (Insets in Figs.8c-e are corresponding SAED patterns)

Precipitate	Phase	Crystal structure	Chemical composition	Typical orientation relationship	Shape
Carbide	MC	fcc	(Ti, Mo, Nb, V)C	(100) _M_C//(100) _α, [010] _M_C//[011] _α	Disk-like
	M₂C (η-carbide)	hcp	(Mo, Cr, V, Mn)₂C	(110) _η //(101) _α, [001] _η //[100] _α	Irregular
	ε-carbide	hcp	Fe_2.4C	[2 $1 ¯ 1 ¯$ 0] _ε //[1 $1 ¯$ 1] _α	Needle-like
	M₃C	Orthorhombic structure	(Fe, Mn, Cr)₃C	(001) $M 3 C$ //( $1 ¯$ 12) _α, [100] $M 3 C$ //[0 $1 ¯$ 1] _α	Needle-like
	M₇C₃	hcp	(Cr, Fe)₇C₃	-	Fine and dispersed
	M₂₃C₆	fcc	(Cr, Fe, Mo)₂₃C₆	(100) $M 23 C 6$ //(100) _α, [010] $M 23 C 6$ //[010] _α	Chain-like
	M₆C	fcc	(Ni, Co)₆C, (Fe, W, Mo)₆C	(001) $M 6 C$ /(011) _α, [110] $M 6 C$ //[111] _α	Cubic
Intermetallic compound and	Cu	bcc, 9R, fcc	Cu, Fe, Al, Ni, Mn	(110)_9R//(111) _α, [11 $4 ¯$ ]_9R//[0 $1 ¯$ 1] _α	Spherical, elongated
nanocluster	Ni₃M	hcp, fcc,	(Ni, Fe, Co)₃(Ti, Mo, Al)	(010) $N i 3 M o$ //(011)_B, [100] $N i 3 M o$ //[11 $1 ¯$ ]_B	Disk-like, rod-like
	NiAl	B2, bcc	Ni, Al, Mn, Fe, Cu	{001}_NiAl//{001}_B, 110_NiAl//110_B	Spherical, elongated
	Fe₂M (Laves phase)	hcp	Fe₂(Mo, Nb, W)	(01 $1 ¯$ 2) $F e 2 W$ //(001) _α, [01 $1 ¯ 1 ¯$ ] $F e 2 W$ //[1 $1 ¯$ 0] _α	Spherical, irregular

Table 5 Characteristics of typical carbides, intermetallic compounds, and nanoclusters in ultra-high strength steel^[82-89]

Fig.7 Precipitation mechanisms of typical composite precipitates in novel ultra-high strength steels
(a) Cu/NiAl^[91] (b) B2-NiAl/η-Ni₃Ti^[92] (c) B2-NiAl/L2₁-Ni₂TiAl^[94] (d) NiMn/Ni₂AlMn^[95]

Fig.8 TEM analyses of co-precipitation of NiAl and M₂C^[97] (a), M₂C^[99] (b), and NiAl^[99] (c) in ultra-high strength steels; co-precipitation mechanism of NiAl and M₂C^[97] (d) (% in Fig.8d is atomic fraction. Arrows in Fig.8d refer to element diffusion)

[1]	Luo H W, Shen G H. Progress and perspective of ultra-high strength steels having high toughness [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2020, 56: 494 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2019.00328
	罗海文, 沈国慧. 超高强高韧化钢的研究进展和展望 [J]. 金属学报, 2020, 56: 494 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2019.00328
[2]	Li H F, Wang S G, Zhang P, et al. Crack propagation mechanisms of AISI 4340 steels with different strength and toughness [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2018, A729: 130
[3]	Liu F G, Lin X, Song M H, et al. Effect of tempering temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of laser solid formed 300M steel [J]. J. Alloys Compd., 2016, 689: 225 doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.07.276
[4]	Zhang Y P, Zhan D P, Qi X W, et al. Effect of solid-solution temperature on the microstructure and properties of ultra-high-strength ferrium S53® steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2018, A730: 41
[5]	Daymond B T, Binot N, Schmidt M L, et al. Development of custom 465^® corrosion-resisting steel for landing gear applications [J]. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2016, 25: 1539 doi: 10.1007/s11665-015-1830-5
[6]	Li Y C, Yan W, Cotton J D, et al. A new 1.9 GPa maraging stainless steel strengthened by multiple precipitating species [J]. Mater. Des., 2015, 82: 56 doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2015.05.042
[7]	Maloney J L, Garrison W M. The effect of sulfide type on the fracture behavior of HY180 steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2005, 53: 533 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2004.09.041
[8]	Li Y F, Cheng X, Liu D, et al. Influence of last stage heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of laser additive manufactured AF1410 steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2018, A713: 75
[9]	Manigandan K, Srivatsan T S, Tammana D, et al. Influence of microstructure on strain-controlled fatigue and fracture behavior of ultra high strength alloy steel AerMet 100 [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2014, A601: 29
[10]	Prasad N E, Wanhill R J H. Aerospace Materials and Material Technologies [M]. Singapore: Springer, 2017: 173
[11]	Morris J W. Making steel strong and cheap [J]. Nat. Mater., 2017, 16: 787 doi: 10.1038/nmat4949 pmid: 28748963
[12]	He Y, Yang K, Kong F Y, et al. Mechanical properties of ultra-high-strength 18Ni cobalt-free maraging steel [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2002, 38: 278
	何毅, 杨柯, 孔凡亚等. 超高强度18Ni无钴马氏体时效钢的力学性能 [J]. 金属学报, 2002, 38: 278
[13]	Gao Y H, Liu S Z, Hu X B, et al. A novel low cost 2000 MPa grade ultra-high strength steel with balanced strength and toughness [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2019, A759: 298
[14]	Liu Z B, Yang Z, Wang X H, et al. Enhanced strength-ductility synergy in a new 2.2 GPa grade ultra-high strength stainless steel with balanced fracture toughness: Elucidating the role of duplex aging treatment [J]. J. Alloys Compd., 2022, 928: 167135 doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.167135
[15]	Niu G, Zurob H S, Misra R D K, et al. Superior fracture toughness in a high-strength austenitic steel with heterogeneous lamellar microstructure [J]. Acta Mater., 2022, 226: 117642 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2022.117642
[16]	Leo D W, Varadarajan A S. Simulation of surface milling of hardened AISI 4340 steel with minimal fluid application using artificial neural network [J]. Adv. Prod. Eng. Manag., 2012, 1: 51
[17]	Kasana, S S, Sharma S, Pandey O P. Influence of heat treatment (routes) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 300M ultra high strength steel [J]. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng., 2022, 22: 126 doi: 10.1007/s43452-022-00439-z
[18]	Feng D Y, Liu S C, Wang S L, et al. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of electron beam welding joint of 30CrMnSiNi2A steel [J]. Mater. Rep., 2025, 39(14): 132
	冯殿远, 刘诗超, 王善林等. 热处理对30CrMnSiNi2A钢电子束焊接头组织和性能的影响 [J]. 材料导报, 2025, 39(14): 132
[19]	Chen D M, Kang M K, Tan R B. Fatigue properties of meta-bainite in steel 40CrMnSiMoVA [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 1991, 27: A458
	陈大明, 康沫狂, 谭若兵. 40CrMnSiMoVA钢准贝氏体的疲劳性能 [J]. 金属学报, 1991, 27: A458
[20]	Tikhe O, Doiphode P, Nichul U, et al. Development of optimized mechanical properties of AISI 4340 steel: Role of quenching and partitioning process [J]. Met. Mater. Int., 2023, 29: 2216 doi: 10.1007/s12540-022-01375-6
[21]	Liu X M, Hua F, Liu R, et al. Effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of steel 30CrMnSiNi2A [J]. Iron Steel, 2003, 38(1): 43
	刘宪民, 花峰, 刘蕤等. 热处理对30CrMnSiNi2A钢力学性能的影响 [J]. 钢铁, 2003, 38(1): 43
[22]	Khodamorad A, Hassan S, Shahram K. Bainite-martensite microstructure in D6AC steel effect of bainite morphology on mechanical properties of the mixed [J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2012, 28: 336 doi: 10.1016/S1005-0302(12)60065-6
[23]	Maloney J L, Garrison W M. The effect of sulfide type on the fracture behavior of HY180 steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2005, 53: 533 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2004.09.041
[24]	Handerhan K J, Garrison W M, Moody N R. A comparison of the fracture behavior of two heats of the secondary hardening steel AF1410 [J]. Metall. Trans., 1989, 20A: 105
[25]	Thomas R L S, Li D M, Gangloff R P, et al. Trap-governed hydrogen diffusivity and uptake capacity in ultrahigh-strength AERMET100 steel [J]. Metall. Mater. Trans., 2002, 33A: 1991
[26]	Morikawa H, Komatsu H, Tanino M. Effect of chromium upon co‐herency between M₂C precipitates and α-iron matrix in 0.1C-10Ni-8Co-lMo-Cr steels [J]. J. Electron. Microsc., 1973, 22: 99
[27]	Li K, Shan J G, Wang C X, et al. Strength and toughness of T250 maraging steel joint hybrid-treated with laser welding and aging [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2015, 51: 904 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2014.00635
	李坤, 单际国, 王春旭等. T250马氏体时效钢激光焊接-时效处理接头的强韧性 [J]. 金属学报, 2015, 51: 904
[28]	Liu Z B, Liang J X, Su J, et al. Research and application progress in ultra-high strength stainless steel [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2020, 56: 549
	刘振宝, 梁剑雄, 苏杰等. 高强度不锈钢的研究及发展现状 [J]. 金属学报, 2020, 56: 549 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2019.00453
[29]	Anoop C R, Prakash A, Narayana Murty S V S, et al. Origin of low temperature toughness in a 12Cr-10Ni martensitic precipitation hardenable stainless steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2018, A709: 1
[30]	Bray J W, Maloney J L, Raghavan K S, et al. A comparison of the fracture behavior of two commercially produced heats of HY180 steel differing in sulfide type [J]. Metall. Trans., 1991, 22A: 2277
[31]	Luo H, Yin Z D, Zhu J C, et al. Influence of grain size on mechanical properties of 18Ni maraging steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2000, 8(1): 59
	罗鸿, 尹钟大, 朱景川等. 晶粒尺寸对18Ni马氏体时效钢力学性能的影响 [J]. 材料科学与工艺, 2000, 8(1): 59
[32]	Kim Y G, Kim G S, Lee C S, et al. Microstructure and mechanical properties of a cobalt-free tungsten-bearing maraging steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 1986, 79: 133
[33]	Yang W Y. Investigation on strength-toughness mechanism of low nickel, cobalt free maraging steel [D]. Taiyuan: North University of China, 2009
	杨维宇. 低Ni无Co马氏体时效钢强韧化研究 [D]. 太原: 中北大学, 2009
[34]	Kuehmann C, Tufts B, Trester P. Computational design for ultra high-strength alloy [J]. AMP Tech. Artic., 2008, 166: 37
[35]	Niu Y E, Zhao P P, Li N, et al. Research status and application of ultra-high strength steel at home and abroad [J]. J. Ordnance Equip. Eng., 2021, 42(7): 274
	牛艳娥, 赵芃沛, 李宁等. 国内外超高强度钢的研究现状及应用 [J]. 兵器装备工程学报, 2021, 42(7): 274
[36]	Zhou C, Ye Q B, Tian Y, et al. Research and application progress of ultra-high strength structural steel [J]. Trans. Mater. Heat Treat., 2021, 42(1): 14
	周成, 叶其斌, 田勇等. 超高强度结构钢的研究及发展 [J]. 材料热处理学报, 2021, 42(1): 14
[37]	Yin H, Li J X, Su Y J, et al. Current situation and development of maraging steel [J]. J. Iron Steel Res., 2014, 26(3): 1
	尹航, 李金许, 宿彦京等. 马氏体时效钢的研究现状与发展 [J]. 钢铁研究学报, 2014, 26(3): 1
[38]	Jiang S H, Wang H, Wu Y, et al. Ultrastrong steel via minimal lattice misfit and high-density nanoprecipitation [J]. Nature, 2017, 544: 460 doi: 10.1038/nature22032
[39]	Olson G B. Genomic materials design: The ferrous frontier [J]. Acta Mater., 2013, 61: 771 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2012.10.045
[40]	Xu W, Rivera-Díaz-del-Castillo P E J, Yan W, et al. A new ultrahigh-strength stainless steel strengthened by various coexisting nanoprecipitates [J]. Acta Mater., 2010, 58: 4067 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2010.03.005
[41]	Jiao Z B, Luan J H, Miller M K, et al. Precipitation mechanism and mechanical properties of an ultra-high strength steel hardened by nanoscale NiAl and Cu particles [J]. Acta Mater., 2015, 97: 58 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2015.06.063
[42]	Jiao Z B, Luan J H, Miller M K, et al. Co-precipitation of nanoscale particles in steels with ultra-high strength for a new era [J]. Mater. Today, 2017, 20: 142 doi: 10.1016/j.mattod.2016.07.002
[43]	Niu M C, Yin L C, Yang K, et al. Synergistic alloying effects on nanoscale precipitation and mechanical properties of ultrahigh-strength steels strengthened by Ni₃Ti, Mo-enriched, and Cr-rich co-precipitates [J]. Acta Mater., 2021, 209: 116788 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2021.116788
[44]	Wang L J, Jiang S H, Peng B, et al. Ultrastrong steel strengthened by multiple shearable nanostructures [J]. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2023, 161: 245 doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2023.05.001
[45]	Raabe D, Ponge D, Dmitrieva O, et al. Nanoprecipitate-hardened 1.5 GPa steels with unexpected high ductility [J]. Scr. Mater., 2009, 60: 1141 doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.02.062
[46]	Sun L, Simm T H, Martin T L, et al. A novel ultra-high strength maraging steel with balanced ductility and creep resistance achieved by nanoscale β-NiAl and Laves phase precipitates [J]. Acta Mater., 2018, 149: 285 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2018.02.044
[47]	Sun M X, Zhang W N, Liu Z Y, et al. Direct observations on the crystal structure evolution of nano Cu-precipitates in an extremely low carbon steel [J]. Mater. Lett., 2017, 187: 49 doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2016.10.077
[48]	Bhadeshia H K D H, Edmonds D V. The bainite transformation in a silicon steel [J]. Metall. Trans., 1979, 10A: 895
[49]	Hodgson P, Timokhina I, Xiong X Y, et al. Understanding of the bainite transformation in a nano-structured bainitic steel [J]. Solid State Phenom., 2011, 172-174: 123 doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.172-174
[50]	He B B, Hu B, Yen H W, et al. High dislocation density-induced large ductility in deformed and partitioned steels [J]. Science, 2017, 357: 1029 doi: 10.1126/science.aan0177 pmid: 28839008
[51]	Qin S W, Liu Y, Hao Q G, et al. High carbon microalloyed martensitic steel with ultrahigh strength-ductility [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2016, A663: 151
[52]	Gao G H, Zhang H, Gui X L, et al. Enhanced ductility and toughness in an ultrahigh-strength Mn-Si-Cr-C steel: The great potential of ultrafine filmy retained austenite [J]. Acta Mater., 2014, 76: 425 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.05.055
[53]	Yin C C, Hu F, Zheng H, et al. Research progress on retained austenite refinement and controlling of mechanical properties of nanostructured bainitic steel [J]. Trans. Mater. Heat Treat., 2021, 42(1): 1
	尹朝朝, 胡锋, 郑花等. 纳米贝氏体钢残奥细化及其力学性能调控研究进展 [J]. 材料热处理学报, 2021, 42(1): 1 doi: 10.13289/j.issn.1009-6264.2020-0277
[54]	Wilms M B, Rittinghaus S K, Goßling M, et al. Additive manufacturing of oxide-dispersion strengthened alloys: Materials, synthesis and manufacturing [J]. Prog. Mater. Sci., 2023, 133: 101049 doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.101049
[55]	Romero-Resendiz L, El-Tahawy M, Zhang T, et al. Heterostructured stainless steel: Properties, current trends, and future perspectives [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2022, R150: 100691
[56]	Nagarajan B, Hu Z H, Song X, et al. Development of micro selective laser melting: The state of the art and future perspectives [J]. Engineering, 2019, 5: 702 doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2019.07.002
[57]	Yadroitsev I, Smurov I. Selective laser melting technology: From the single laser melted track stability to 3D parts of complex shape [J]. Phys. Proc., 2010, 5: 551 doi: 10.1016/j.phpro.2010.08.083
[58]	Thompson S M, Bian L K, Shamsaei N, et al. An overview of Direct Laser Deposition for additive manufacturing; Part I: Transport phenomena, modeling and diagnostics [J]. Addit. Manuf., 2015, 8: 36
[59]	Ding D H, Pan Z X, Cuiuri D, et al. Wire-feed additive manufacturing of metal components: Technologies, developments and future interests [J]. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2015, 81: 465 doi: 10.1007/s00170-015-7077-3
[60]	Wu W W, Xiang C, Zhang T, et al. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of 18Ni300 maraging steel fabricated by selective laser melting [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2025, 61: 1515 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00009
	吴文伟, 向超, 张涛等. 热处理工艺对选区激光熔化成型18Ni300马氏体时效钢微观组织及力学性能的影响 [J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61: 1515 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00009
[61]	Tan C L, Zhou K S, Ma W Y, et al. Microstructural evolution, nanoprecipitation behavior and mechanical properties of selective laser melted high-performance grade 300 maraging steel [J]. Mater. Des., 2017, 134: 23 doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2017.08.026
[62]	Tan C L, Zhou K S, Kuang M, et al. Microstructural characterization and properties of selective laser melted maraging steel with different build directions [J]. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 2018, 19: 746 doi: 10.1080/14686996.2018.1527645
[63]	Jägle E A, Choi P P, Van Humbeeck J, et al. Precipitation and austenite reversion behavior of a maraging steel produced by selective laser melting [J]. J. Mater. Res., 2014, 29: 2072 doi: 10.1557/jmr.2014.204
[64]	Becker T H, Dimitrov D. The achievable mechanical properties of SLM produced maraging Steel 300 components [J]. Rapid Prototyping J., 2016, 22: 487 doi: 10.1108/RPJ-08-2014-0096
[65]	Suryawanshi J, Prashanth K G, Ramamurty U. Tensile, fracture, and fatigue crack growth properties of a 3D printed maraging steel through selective laser melting [J]. J. Alloys Compd., 2017, 725: 355 doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.07.177
[66]	Tan C L, Zhou K S, Ma W Y, et al. Interfacial characteristic and mechanical performance of maraging steel-copper functional bimetal produced by selective laser melting based hybrid manufacture [J]. Mater. Des., 2018, 155: 77 doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2018.05.064
[67]	Cyr E, Asgari H, Shamsdini S, et al. Fracture behaviour of additively manufactured MS1-H13 hybrid hard steels [J]. Mater. Lett., 2018, 212: 174 doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2017.10.097
[68]	Wang B X, Cui W W, Zhang Y, et al. Effect of tempering temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of 300M steel [J]. Foundry Technol., 2021, 42: 719
	王丙旭, 崔威威, 张宇等. 回火温度对300M钢组织和性能的影响 [J]. 铸造技术, 2021, 42: 719
[69]	Wen C F, Xiao A D, Liu X H, et al. Effect of tempering temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties of low alloy ultra-high strength steel Q1300 [J]. Heat Treat. Met., 2019, 44(2): 172
	温长飞, 肖爱达, 刘旭辉等. 回火温度对低合金超高强钢Q1300组织与性能的影响 [J]. 金属热处理, 2019, 44(2): 172
[70]	Abdollah-Zadeh A, Jafari-Pirlari A, Barzegari M. Tempered martensite embrittlement in a 32NiCrMoV125 steel [J]. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2005, 14: 569 doi: 10.1361/105994905X64657
[71]	Kim S H, Kim H, Kim N J. Brittle intermetallic compound makes ultrastrong low-density steel with large ductility [J]. Nature, 2015, 518: 77 doi: 10.1038/nature14144
[72]	Li X Y, Lu K. Improving sustainability with simpler alloys [J]. Science, 2019, 364: 733 doi: 10.1126/science.aaw9905 pmid: 31123122
[73]	Jan-Erik A, Lindberg F, Patrik Ö. Hybrid steel enhances component performance at reduced weight [J]. Lightweight Des. Worldw., 2019, 12: 34
[74]	Ma X L, Zhang C C, Zhang C L, et al. Microstructure and properties of sorbite stainless steel designed by “hybrid” idea [J]. Mater. Rep., 2020, 34: 4103
	马潇磊, 张成成, 张朝磊等. 基于“混杂”设计的索氏体新型不锈钢的组织和性能 [J]. 材料导报, 2020, 34: 4103
[75]	Pan X K, Huang B Y, Zhang C L, et al. Strengthening mechanism and precipitate evolution of a multi-application special engineering steel designed based on a hybrid idea [J]. J. Alloys Compd., 2023, 942: 169053 doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2023.169053
[76]	Lee J Y, Jeong H B, Jo W H, et al. Hydrogen desorption mechanism associated with ε carbide decomposition in martensitic medium-Mn steel [J]. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2025, 37: 3832 doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.07.082
[77]	Chen J Y, Jin P F, Wang S J, et al. A novel Ni-Mo-W-V martensitic steel for hot working dies: Improved elevated-temperature mechanical properties and wear resistance via thermally stable MC nanoprecipitates [J]. Tribol. Int., 2025, 207: 110618 doi: 10.1016/j.triboint.2025.110618
[78]	Hong C W, Youn K T, Kim S H, et al. Investigation of V-rich MC (M = V, Mo) carbide behavior related to thermal fatigue property in commercial hot work tool steel processing [J]. Mater. Charact., 2024, 214: 114025 doi: 10.1016/j.matchar.2024.114025
[79]	Ghosh G, Olson G B. Precipitation of paraequilibrium cementite: Experiments, and thermodynamic and kinetic modeling [J]. Acta Mater., 2002, 50: 2099 doi: 10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00054-X
[80]	Dyson D J, Keown S R, Raynor D, et al. The orientation relationship and growth direction of Mo₂C in ferrite [J]. Acta Metall., 1966, 14: 867 doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(66)90007-1
[81]	Wang C C. Alloy design of high Co-Ni secondary hardening steel by multi-scale simulation [D]. Beijing: Tsinghua University, 2017
	王晨充. 基于多尺度模拟的高Co-Ni二次硬化钢合金设计 [D]. 北京: 清华大学, 2017
[82]	Kamikawa N, Abe Y, Miyamoto G, et al. Tensile behavior of Ti, Mo-added low carbon steels with interphase precipitation [J]. ISIJ Int., 2014, 54: 212 doi: 10.2355/isijinternational.54.212
[83]	Jain D, Isheim D, Hunter A H, et al. Multicomponent high-strength low-alloy steel precipitation-strengthened by sub-nanometric Cu precipitates and M₂C carbides [J]. Metall. Mater. Trans., 2016, 47A: 3860
[84]	Inoue A, Masumoto T. Carbide reactions (M₃C→M₇C₃→M₂₃C₆→M₆C) during tempering of rapidly solidified high carbon Cr-W and Cr-Mo steels [J]. Metall. Trans., 1980, 11A: 739
[85]	Kapoor M, Isheim D, Ghosh G, et al. Aging characteristics and mechanical properties of 1600MPa body-centered cubic Cu and B2-NiAl precipitation-strengthened ferritic steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2014, 73: 56 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.03.051
[86]	Li C N, Duan R, Fu W, et al. Improvement of mechanical properties for low carbon ultra-high strength steel strengthened by Cu-rich multistructured precipitation via modification to bainite [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2021, A817: 141337
[87]	Moshka O, Pinkas M, Brosh E, et al. Addressing the issue of precipitates in maraging steels—Unambiguous answer [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2015, A638: 232
[88]	Simm T H, Sun L, Galvin D R, et al. A SANS and APT study of precipitate evolution and strengthening in a maraging steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2017, A702: 414
[89]	Ruan T T, Shen J J, Li B, et al. High-temperature strengthening mechanism and thermal stability of Laves phase in ferritic matrix [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2022, A859: 144183
[90]	Zhang C X, Gao Q Z, Ma Q S, et al. Variety of yield strength caused by precipitations of L1₂-Ni₃Al and B2-NiAl phases in alumina-forming austenitic steel [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2024, A894: 146177
[91]	Jiao Z B, Luan J H, Miller M K, et al. Group precipitation and age hardening of nanostructured Fe-based alloys with ultra-high strengths [J]. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6: 21364 doi: 10.1038/srep21364 pmid: 26892834
[92]	Leitner H, Schober M, Schnitzer R. Splitting phenomenon in the precipitation evolution in an Fe-Ni-Al-Ti-Cr stainless steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2010, 58: 1261 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2009.10.030
[93]	Schnitzer R, Schober M, Zinner S, et al. Effect of Cu on the evolution of precipitation in an Fe-Cr-Ni-Al-Ti maraging steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2010, 58: 3733 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2010.03.010
[94]	Liebscher C H, Radmilović V R, Dahmen U, et al. A hierarchical microstructure due to chemical ordering in the bcc lattice: Early stages of formation in a ferritic Fe-Al-Cr-Ni-Ti alloy [J]. Acta Mater., 2015, 92: 220 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2015.03.043
[95]	Millán J, Sandlöbes S, Al-Zubi A, et al. Designing Heusler nanoprecipitates by elastic misfit stabilization in Fe-Mn maraging steels [J]. Acta Mater., 2014, 76: 94 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.05.016
[96]	Delagnes D, Pettinari-Sturmel F, Mathon M H, et al. Cementite-free martensitic steels: A new route to develop high strength/high toughness grades by modifying the conventional precipitation sequence during tempering [J]. Acta Mater., 2012, 60: 5877 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2012.07.030
[97]	Wang Y X, Guo X F, Hu C D, et al. Industrially produced 2.4 GPa ultra-strong steel via nanoscale dual-precipitates co-configuration [J]. Mater. Charact., 2024, 208: 113646 doi: 10.1016/j.matchar.2024.113646
[98]	Wang Y X, Li A J, Wang T, et al. Effects of NiAl on precipitation behavior and mechanical properties of M₂C strengthened secondary hardening steel [J]. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2025, 35: 3107 doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.02.002
[99]	Zhu H F, Xiong Z P, Mao J W, et al. Effect of ageing temperature on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties in M₂C and NiAl co-precipitation secondary hardening ultrahigh-strength steel [J]. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2024, 30: 3522 doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.04.116
[100]	Liu X Q, Wang C C, Zhang Y F, et al. Design of a 2.7 GPa ultra-high-strength high Co-Ni secondary hardening steel by two-step nano-size precipitation tailoring [J]. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2024, 28: 4212 doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.01.038
[101]	Xiao C J, Zhang Y P, Zhan D P, et al. Effect of Cu addition on the precipitation behavior of M₂C carbides in maraging steel [J]. Mater. Charact., 2024, 210: 113846 doi: 10.1016/j.matchar.2024.113846
[102]	Peng R Z, Wu X C, Chen S N, et al. Evolution mechanism of Mo-rich, B2-NiAl, and Cu-rich particles under aging and its influence on strength and elongation in a maraging hot work steel SDH88 [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2024, A916: 147317
[103]	Galindo-Nava E I, Rainforth W M, Rivera-Díaz-del-Castillo P E J. Predicting microstructure and strength of maraging steels: Elemental optimisation [J]. Acta Mater., 2016, 117: 270 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2016.07.020
[104]	Galindo-Nava E I, Rivera-Díaz-del-Castillo P E J. A model for the microstructure behaviour and strength evolution in lath martensite [J]. Acta Mater., 2015, 98: 81 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2015.07.018
[105]	Follansbee P S, Kocks U F. A constitutive description of the deformation of copper based on the use of the mechanical threshold stress as an internal state variable [J]. Acta Metall., 1988, 36: 81 doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(88)90030-2
[106]	Fleischer R L. Substitutional solution hardening [J]. Acta Metall., 1963, 11: 203 doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(63)90213-X
[107]	Labusch R. A statistical theory of solid solution hardening [J]. Phys. Satus Solidi, 1970, 41b: 659
[108]	Li Y J, Yuan G, Li L L, et al. Ductile 2-GPa steels with hierarchical substructure [J]. Science, 2023, 379: 168 doi: 10.1126/science.add7857 pmid: 36634172
[109]	Kimura Y, Inoue T, Yin F X, et al. Inverse temperature dependence of toughness in an ultrafine grain-structure steel [J]. Science, 2008, 320: 1057 doi: 10.1126/science.1156084 pmid: 18497294
[110]	Li Y Z, Huang M X. A method to calculate the dislocation density of a TWIP steel based on neutron diffraction and synchrotron X-ray diffraction [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2020, 56: 487 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2020.00016
	李亦庄, 黄明欣. 基于中子衍射和同步辐射X射线衍射的TWIP钢位错密度计算方法 [J]. 金属学报, 2020, 56: 487 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2020.00016
[111]	Cong Z H, Murata Y. Dislocation density of lath martensite in 10Cr-5W heat-resistant steels [J]. Mater. Trans., 2011, 52: 2151 doi: 10.2320/matertrans.M2011201
[112]	Blankenship C P, Hornbogen E, Starke E A. Predicting slip behavior in alloys containing shearable and strong particles [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 1993, A169: 33
[113]	Yong Q L. Secondary Phases in Steel [M]. Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press, 2006: 442
	雍岐龙. 钢铁材料中的第二相 [M]. 北京: 冶金工业出版社, 2006: 442
[114]	Ma K K, Wen H M, Hu T, et al. Mechanical behavior and strengthening mechanisms in ultrafine grain precipitation-strengthened aluminum alloy [J]. Acta Mater., 2014, 62: 141 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2013.09.042
[115]	Götz G, Blum W. Influence of thermal history on precipitation of hardening phases in tempered martensite 10%Cr-steel X12CrMo-WVNbN 10-1-1 [J]. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2003, A348: 201
[116]	Wang F, Song M, Elkot M N, et al. Shearing brittle intermetallics enhances cryogenic strength and ductility of steels [J]. Science, 2024, 384: 1017 doi: 10.1126/science.ado2919 pmid: 38815014
[117]	Kapoor M. Design and development of bcc-copper- and B2 nickel-aluminium-precipitation-strengthened ferritic steel [D]. Evanston: Northwestern University, 2013
[118]	Aghajani A, Somsen C, Eggeler G. On the effect of long-term creep on the microstructure of a 12% chromium tempered martensite ferritic steel [J]. Acta Mater., 2009, 57: 5093 doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2009.07.010
[119]	Zhang T Y, Zhang B, Xiao N, et al. Effect of austenitizing temperature on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a 2 GPa ultra-high strength steel [J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2025, 61: 1353 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00005
	张天宇, 张鹏, 肖娜等. 奥氏体化温度对2 GPa超高强钢显微组织和力学性能的影响 [J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61: 1353 doi: 10.11900/0412.1961.2024.00005
[120]	Baird J D. The effects of strain-ageing due to interstitial solutes on the mechanical properties of metals [J]. Metall. Rev., 1971, 16: 1
[121]	Zener C. Theory of growth of spherical precipitates from solid solution [J]. J. Appl. Phys., 1949, 20: 950 doi: 10.1063/1.1698258
[122]	Gladman T. On the theory of the effect of precipitate particles on grain growth in metals [J]. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1966, 294A: 298
[123]	Baldan A. Review Progress in Ostwald ripening theories and their applications to nickel-base superalloys Part I: Ostwald ripening theories [J]. J. Mater. Sci., 2002, 37: 2171 doi: 10.1023/A:1015388912729
[124]	Lifshitz I M, Slyozov V V. The Kinetics of precipitation from supersaturated solid solutions [J]. J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1961, 19: 35 doi: 10.1016/0022-3697(61)90054-3
[125]	Wagner C. Theorie der alterung von niederschlägen durch umlösen (Ostwald-Reifung) [J]. Z. Electrochemie, Ber. Bunsen. Phys. Chem., 1961, 65: 581
[126]	Speight M V. Growth kinetics of grain-boundary precipitates [J]. Acta Metall., 1968, 16: 133 doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(68)90081-3
[127]	Kirchner H O K. Coarsening of grain-boundary precipitates [J]. Metall. Trans., 1971, 2: 2861
[128]	Ardell A J. On the coarsening of grain boundary precipitates [J]. Acta Metall., 1972, 20: 601 doi: 10.1016/0001-6160(72)90015-6

[1]	OUYANG Qiubao, SU Nan, WANG Ruian, LIU Kan, ZHANG Di. Research Progress on Cross-Scale Synergistically Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(5): 733-742.
[2]	JIANG Huimin, WEI Mengjie, HU Xiaoqiang, CAI Xin, LI Dianzhong, DANG En. Effects of Tempering Temperature on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of F22M Steel for Blowout Preventer in Ultra-Deep Well[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(4): 587-598.
[3]	CAO Yanfei, ZHANG Xiao, LIU Hongwei, WANG Leitao, KE Yubin, HE Lunhua, XIE Zhenhua, WANG Pei, LI Dianzhong. Nanoscale Carbide Precipitates and Residual Stress Evolution in Cryogenically Treated M50 Aeroengine Bearing Steel Investigated Using Advanced Neutron Methods[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(3): 467-476.
[4]	ZHENG Qinyuan, LIU Peng, LU Yi, ZHU Hailong, ZHENG Chengwu, LUAN Yikun, LI Dianzhong. Effect of Mn Pre-Partitioning on Bainite Transformation During Medium-Temperature Continuous Cooling of Medium Mn Steel[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(3): 477-488.
[5]	ZHAO Xia, WANG Min, HAO Xianchao, ZHANG Long, GAO Ming, MA Yingche, LIU Kui. Effect of Grain Boundary Carbide and Dynamic Recrystalli-zation on the High-Temperature Plasticity of Columnar-Grain Solidified Microstructure in 690 Alloy[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(2): 339-350.
[6]	ZHANG Tianhao, JU Quan, MENG Zhaobin, WANG Hao, HU Benfu. Microstructural Stability in Tungsten Argon-Arc Welded Joint of GH3230 Superalloy Plate[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(9): 1375-1386.
[7]	LIU Jihao, CHI Hongxiao, WU Huibin, MA Dangshen, ZHOU Jian, GU Jinbo. Influence of Spray Forming Process on Carbide Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of M3 High-Speed Steel[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(8): 1229-1244.
[8]	XIE Ang, CHEN Shenghu, JIANG Haichang, RONG Lijian. Effects of Nb Content and Homogenization Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cast Austenitic Stainless Steel[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(7): 1035-1048.
[9]	LI Fushun, LIU Zhipeng, DING Cancan, HU Bin, LUO Haiwen. Strengthening and Plastifying Mechanisms of a Novel High-Strength Low-Density Austenitic Steel[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(6): 909-916.
[10]	ZHAO Guangdi, LI Yang, YAO Xiaoyu, WANG Liang, LI Weibin, PAN Yuhua, LI Weijuan, WANG Zhaoyu. Effect of Boron on Solidification Behavior, Strength-Toughness, and Wear Resistance of Fe-Cr-B-C Alloy[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(5): 699-716.
[11]	MENG Xianglong, LIU Ruiliang, Li D. Y.. First Principles Study on the Precipitation and Properties of Carbides in the Surface Carburized Layer of Tantalum Alloys[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(5): 797-808.
[12]	LIANG Xuan, HOU Tingping, ZHANG Dong, TAN Xinyang, WU Kaiming. Precipitation Behavior of Primary Carbides in Medium Carbon Nb-Alloyed Steel[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(4): 653-664.
[13]	HAN Qifei, DI Xinglong, GUO Yueling, YE Shuijun, ZHENG Yuanxuan, LIU Changmeng. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Mg/Mg Bimetals Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(2): 211-225.
[14]	JU Yulin, WEI Qi, YUAN Zhizhong, CHENG Xiaonong. Hardness and Microstructural Evolution of Lower Bainite and Martensite Mixtures on Tempering of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel Plates[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(10): 1531-1541.
[15]	WANG Chao, WANG Haibin, XUAN Shilei, LIU Xuan, LIU Xuemei, SONG Xiaoyan. Effects of Powder Molding Process on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of As-Sintered Ultrafine- Grained WC-12Co Cemented Carbides[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61(10): 1579-1592.

No Suggested Reading articles found!

Viewed

Full text

Abstract

Cited

Shared

Discussed