Research Progress on High-Strength Al-Mg-Sc Alloys Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Metallurgical Defects, Microstructure, and Performance

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00238

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (1): 29-46 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00238

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Research Progress on High-Strength Al-Mg-Sc Alloys Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Metallurgical Defects, Microstructure, and Performance

MA Chengyong¹(

), HOU Xuru¹^,², ZHAO Lin¹(

), KAN Chengling¹, CAO Yang¹, PENG Yun¹, TIAN Zhiling¹

1 Central Iron and Steel Research Institute, Beijing 100081, China
2 Institute of Machinery Manufacturing Technology, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621900, China

Cite this article:

MA Chengyong, HOU Xuru, ZHAO Lin, KAN Chengling, CAO Yang, PENG Yun, TIAN Zhiling. Research Progress on High-Strength Al-Mg-Sc Alloys Fabricated by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Metallurgical Defects, Microstructure, and Performance. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(1): 29-46.

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Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as one of the most promising technologies for producing large and complex components due to its low cost, high deposition efficiency, and absence of size limitations. It is particularly suitable for Al-Mg-Sc alloys, which exhibit excellent weldability. This article provides a detailed review of studies from the past five years on WAAM Al-Mg-Sc alloys, focusing on metallurgical defects, microstructural evolution, and resulting performance. Existing researches indicated that in WAAM, optimizing wire compositions, process parameters, and introducing interlayer friction stir processing (FSP) can effectively reduce porosity, improve microstructure, and enhance performance. The lowest porosity was about 0.026%. Due to the strong microalloying effect of Sc, the microstructures were all equiaxed grains with an average grain size of about 10 μm. The alloys also exhibited excellent performance, achieving a highest tensile strength of approximately 470 MPa after direct aging, along with outstanding plasticity. However, the development of WAAM-specific Al-Mg-Sc wires, the mechanisms underlying metallurgical defect formation, the control of coarse and fine Al₃(Sc_{1 -}_x, Zr _x ) precipitates, and the systematic evaluation of multi-property performance still need to be further addressed. Finally, considering the advantages of machine learning (ML) in the intelligent manufacturing, this review discussed its potential applications in WAAM, including forward performance prediction and reverse optimization of alloy compositions and processing parameters. Such ML-assisted approaches were expected to accelerate the development of high-strength Al-Mg-Sc filler wires, reduce manufacturing costs, and shorten alloy and process development cycles.

Key words: wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) high-strength Al-Mg-Sc alloy metallurgical defect microstructure and performance machine learning

Received: 19 August 2025

ZTFLH:

TG146.2

Fund: National Key Research and Development Program of China(2024YFB4609700)

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	MA Chengyong
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	CAO Yang
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	TIAN Zhiling

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00238 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I1/29

Fig.1 Schematic of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)

Fig.2 Schematics of three types of WAAM technologies (a-c)^[5] and the characteristics of them and cold metal transfer (CMT) technologies (d)^[26,27] (GMAW—gas metal arc welding, GTAW—gas tungsten arc welding, PAW—plasma arc welding)
(a) GMAW-WAAM (b) GTAW-WAAM (c) PAW-WAAM

Fig.3 Schematics of droplet transfer (a-d)^[29] and waveform diagrams of welding power sources in different CMT modes (e-h) (T means a period of the welding power)
(a) arcing stage (b) short-circuit stage (c) wire retraction (d) arcing stage
(e) CMT (f) CMT + pulse (CMT + P)
(g) CMT + advance (CMT + Adv) (h) CMT + pulse + advance (CMT + Padv)

Fig.4 Phase diagram of Al rich Al-Sc alloy

Fig.5 Schematics of hydrogen supersaturation during the solidification process^[47] (a) and solubility of hydrogen in aluminum versus temperature^[46] (b) (C—concentration, r—radial distance, V—interface growth velocity, R—radius at the interface, $C s *$ and $C l *$ —hydrogen concentrations in the solid and liquid phases on either side of the interface, respectively, $C l$ —actual concentration, $C s o l H$ —solubility of hydrogen in the aluminium melt, C₀—initial hydrogen content)

Fig.6 Statistical results of pores in the components of WAAW Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloys^[43]
(a-c) porosity (a), number density (b), and average diameter (c) at different welding speeds (d-g) distributions of diameter (d) and partially enlarged view (inset) in the components at different welding speeds (d, f) and spatial distributions of pores which diameter was above 50 μm (e, g) with 0.36Sc + 0.11Zr (d, e) and 0.72Sc + 0.23Zr (f, g) alloys

Fig.7 Pore distribution results of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloys with different printing methods^[13]
(a-c) X-ray computed tomography images of pore in components with interlayer temperature 100 ^oC (named IW) (a) and continuous printing (named CP) (b), and the corresponding maximum pores (c)
(d) diameter distribution of pores and partially englarged view (inset)
(e) area fraction of pores layer by layer

Fig.8 Microstructure (a, b) and mechanical properties (c, d) of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc alloys^[58] (HAGBs——high-angle grain boundaries, 15°; LAGBs—low-angle grain boundaries, 2°-15°; GS—average grain size;YS—yield strength, UTS—ultimate tensile strength; TD—travelling direction, BD—building direction)
(a) AlMgScZr (b) AlMgScTi (c) hardness (d) tensile properties

Fig.9 Microstructures and corrosion resistances of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy^[61] (ITZ—inter-layer zone, MPB—molten pool boundary, WADED—wire arc directed energy deposited, i—corrosion current density, OCP—open circuit potential)
(a, b) inverse pole figures (IPFs) (c, d) open circuit potential (c) and statistic results (d) in 3.5%NaCl solution (e-h) potentiodynamic polarization curves

Fig.10 Microstructure and mechanical properties of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc-Ti alloys with different printing modes^[49] (EL—elongation, FG—fine grain, CG—coarse grain)
(a) CMT (b) CMT + PA (Padv)
(c) schematic of microstructures (d) tensile properties

Fig.11 Microstructures of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloys^[13] (RZ—remelted zone, MZ—middle zone, TZ—top zone, FEG—fine equiaxed grain, CEG—coarse equiaxed grain)
(a) interlayer temperature 100 ^oC
(b) continuous printing

Fig.12 Microstructure evolution mechanisms (a-f) and strengthening mechanism (g) of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy^[13] (FGZ—fine equiaxed grain zone, CGZ—coarse equiaxed grain zone; σ₀ is the YS of pure Al (30-50 MPa); σ_HP, σ_SS, σ_P, and σ_D are the YS induced by grain refinement, solid solution strengthening, precipitation strengthening, and dislocation strengthening, respectively)

Fig.13 Relationship between UTS and EL of WAAM Al-Mg-Sc alloys^{[13,49,51,53,54,58,59,61,63,64]} (FSP—friction stir processing)

Fig.14 Application of machine learning (ML) algorithm in WAAM (TS—travel speed, WFS—wire feed rate, RF—random forest, ANN—artificial neural network, T—temperature, F—residual stress)
(a) path optimization^[71]
(b) prediction of residual stress^[74]

Fig.15 Defect monitoring process based on reinforcement learning in WAAM^[77]
(a) data collection
(b) feature extraction
(c, d) support vector machines (SVM) classification results

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