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金属学报, 2026, 62(7): 1207-1227 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354

综述

超高强度钢析出相调控与强化机理研究现状及发展趋势

张朝磊,, 潘晓坤, 高军恒, 吴宏辉, 毛新平

北京科技大学 碳中和研究院 北京 100083

Research Status and Development Trend of Precipitation Phase Regulation and Strengthening Mechanism in Ultra-High Strength Steel

ZHANG Chaolei,, PAN Xiaokun, GAO Junheng, WU Honghui, MAO Xinping

Institute for Carbon Neutrality, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

通讯作者: 张朝磊，zhangchaolei@ustb.edu.cn，主要从事高性能特殊钢材料及其应用研究

编委: 梁烨

收稿日期: 2025-11-03   修回日期: 2025-12-10  

基金资助: 国家自然科学基金项目(52574422)

Corresponding authors: ZHANG Chaolei, professor, Tel: 13581677127, E-mail:zhangchaolei@ustb.edu.cn

Received: 2025-11-03   Revised: 2025-12-10  

Fund supported: National Natural Science Foundation of China(52574422)

作者简介 About authors

张朝磊，男，1984年生，教授，博士

摘要

作为航空、航天及重大装备的关键结构材料，超高强度钢的轻量化与高性能化是相关领域发展的核心需求。然而，传统超高强度钢长期面临高强度与高韧性、良好焊接性与耐蚀性难以协同，以及高合金成本制约其广泛应用等问题。为应对上述问题，本文系统梳理了低合金超高强度钢、二次硬化钢、马氏体时效钢及沉淀硬化不锈钢等传统超高强度钢的发展历程、成分、组织和性能特征，进而重点综述了通过复合纳米析出相调控和多相复合组织设计两类路径开发的新型超高强度钢的研究进展，特别探讨了“混杂化(hybrid)”设计新理念在突破传统钢种界限、融合多相强化机制，以及研制低成本、高性能、易焊接“全能型”超高强度钢方面的潜力与初步实践。详细阐述了超高强度钢中析出相演变规律和强化机理研究现状。最后，对超高强度钢的未来发展方向，特别是在复杂析出相协同调控、高温稳定性及产业化应用等方面的挑战与机遇进行了展望。

关键词： 超高强度钢; 碳化物; 金属间化合物; 强化机理

Abstract

As a key structural material for aviation, aerospace, and major equipment, the lightweight and high-performance development of ultra-high strength (UHS) steel is essential for the advancement of related fields. However, traditional UHS steels have long faced critical challenges: the difficulty in achieving a synergistic combination of high strength, high toughness, good weldability, and corrosion resistance, along with the constraint of high alloy costs that limit their widespread application. To address these issues, we systematically review the development history, composition, microstructure, and performance characteristics of traditional UHS steels, including low-alloy UHS, secondary hardening, maraging, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. We also review the research progress in developing novel UHS steels through two main pathways: the regulation of composite nanoprecipitates and the design of multiphase composite microstructures. Special attention is paid to exploring the potential and preliminary practices of the “hybrid” design concept, which breaks the boundaries of traditional steel classifications and integrates multiple strengthening mechanisms to develop cost-effective, high-performance, and easily weldable “all-round” UHS steels. The current research status regarding the evolution laws of precipitates and strengthening mechanisms in UHS steels is detailed. Finally, the future development directions of UHS steels are proposed, particularly regarding the synergistic control of complex precipitates, high-temperature stability, and industrial application.

Keywords： ultra-high strength steel; carbide; intermetallic compound; strengthening mechanism

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本文引用格式

张朝磊, 潘晓坤, 高军恒, 吴宏辉, 毛新平. 超高强度钢析出相调控与强化机理研究现状及发展趋势[J]. 金属学报, 2026, 62(7): 1207-1227 DOI:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354

ZHANG Chaolei, PAN Xiaokun, GAO Junheng, WU Honghui, MAO Xinping. Research Status and Development Trend of Precipitation Phase Regulation and Strengthening Mechanism in Ultra-High Strength Steel[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica, 2026, 62(7): 1207-1227 DOI:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00354

结构材料的轻量化与高性能化是航空航天、深海探测、能源装备等领域永恒的主题。自20世纪50年代以来，为应对航空航天领域挑战，科研人员研发了超高强度钢(通常指抗拉强度≥ 1500 MPa的钢种)，其比强度优异[1]，已成为飞机起落架、火箭发动机壳体等关键部件的首选材料。历经数十年发展，超高强度钢已形成从低合金钢到中高合金二次硬化钢、马氏体时效钢及沉淀硬化不锈钢的系列化体系。然而，传统超高强度钢面临着一个长期存在的矛盾：依靠高C含量实现的超高强度往往以牺牲韧性、焊接性和耐腐蚀性能为代价；而通过添加大量N、Ni、Co、Mo等贵重元素改善综合性能，又不可避免地增加合金成本并加剧偏析倾向，制约其广泛应用。近年来，随着材料基因组理念、先进表征技术及热处理工艺的进步，设计高共格纳米析出相、构建多相复合组织等新型强化策略不断突破超高强度钢的强度-韧性边界。在此背景下，探索能够有效解耦“成分-工艺-组织-性能-成本”复杂关系的合金设计新范式，成为当前研究的焦点。本文旨在系统回顾超高强度钢，特别是其析出相调控与强化机理的研究现状，梳理发展脉络，并展望其在碳达峰碳中和目标下的未来发展趋势，从而为新一代超高强度钢的研发提供理论参考与技术思路。

1 超高强度钢发展历程及现状

1.1 传统超高强度钢

根据冶金特点，传统超高强度钢可以分为低合金超高强度钢以及二次硬化超高强度钢、马氏体时效钢、沉淀硬化超高强不锈钢等中高合金超高强度钢，部分典型超高强度钢的断裂韧性(KIC)和屈服强度(Rp0.2)如图1[1~15]所示。可见，低合金超高强度钢的强度和断裂韧性均较低，这可能主要受制于其成分特点；而二次硬化超高强度钢和马氏体时效钢由于添加了Co、Ni等合金元素，具有良好的强度与断裂韧性匹配关系。未来，超高强度钢仍将主要向同时提高强度与断裂韧性的方向发展。

图1

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图1   典型超高强度钢的屈服强度与断裂韧性的关系[1~15]

Fig.1   Relationship between yield strength and fracture toughness of typical ultra-high strength steel[1-15] (KIC—fracture toughness, Rp0.2—yield strength)


1.1.1 低合金超高强度钢

低合金超高强度钢的发展始于美国的AISI4130钢。随后在其成分基础上，通过将C含量提升至0.43% (质量分数，下同)，并添加一定量的Ni元素以增强其淬透性与韧性，研制出了AISI4340钢[16]。国际镍公司在其基础上调整了Si含量，并加入0.05%~0.10%的V，开发出了300M钢[17]，目前已被广泛应用于民用航空飞机结构件。我国自20世纪50年代起开始研制低合金超高强度钢，逐步实现了从无到有、从低端到高端的跨越，成功开发出30CrMnSiNi2A[18]、40CrMnSiMoVA[19]等一系列具有代表性的钢种。该类钢的典型成分范围为：C含量0.25%~0.60%，合金元素总含量低于5%。表1[17,20~22]列出了几种典型低合金超高强度钢的具体成分。

表1   典型低合金超高强度钢的化学成分及力学性能[17,20~22]

Table 1  Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical low-alloy ultra-high strength steels[17,20-22]

Steel

Mass fraction / %

UTS

MPa

YS

MPa

Impact energy / JRef.
CMnSiCrNiMoV
AISI43400.38-0.430.60-0.800.20-0.350.70-0.901.65-2.000.20-0.30-1802152825[20]
300M0.41-0.460.65-0.901.45-1.800.65-0.951.60-2.000.30-0.40≥ 0.051890160528[17]
30CrMnSiNi2A0.27-0.341.00-1.301.00-1.200.90-1.201.40-1.80--1720140075[21]
D6AC0.44-0.490.60-0.900.15-0.350.90-1.200.40-0.700.90-1.100.05-0.152080184013[22]

Note: UTS—ultimate tensile strength, YS—yield strength

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低合金超高强度钢的常规热处理工艺主要为淬火配合低温回火(回火温度多处于200~300 ℃)或等温淬火。经热处理后，钢的显微组织主要为回火马氏体及细小弥散的碳化物，从而赋予其超高强度和一定的韧性水平，典型力学性能见表1[17,20~22]。由于低合金超高强度钢中合金元素含量较低，其具备成本低、制备工艺简单等优势，但也存在韧性不足、耐腐蚀性能及焊接性能较差等缺点。

1.1.2 二次硬化超高强度钢

为适应现代航空航天与高压容器对材料性能的要求，在低合金体系的基础上降低C含量，添加Ni、Co、Cr等合金元素，发展出了具有二次硬化效应的超高强度钢。20世纪60年代中期，美国率先研制出HY180钢，该钢种兼具高强度与高韧性，并具有良好的耐高温低压性能，最初应用于深海潜艇装备[23]。随后，Handerhan等[24]通过对HY180钢的成分和工艺进行系统优化，开发出了综合性能更加优异的AF1410钢，在保持超高强度的同时，其焊接和加工性能也得到显著改善。在此基础之上，Carpenter公司经过持续技术攻关，成功研发出强度更高、抗疲劳性能更卓越的AerMet100钢[25]，由此形成了以HY180、AF1410和AerMet100等为代表的二次硬化超高强度钢系列。

二次硬化超高强度钢通常采用淬火+ 500~600 ℃回火的热处理制度。在此过程中，弥散分布的M2C型碳化物析出，同时残余奥氏体可能发生二次淬火转变，从而显著提升材料的强度与塑性匹配。Morikawa等[26]研究发现，回火过程中合金碳化物的实际组成并非固定，其点阵常数受基体化学成分的影响而发生改变，进而可调控碳化物与基体间的共格关系。通过对成分设计与热处理参数的协同调控，可实现二次硬化超高强度钢强度与韧性的同步优化。表2[9,24,27~32]列出了典型二次硬化超高强度钢的成分和室温下的力学性能。

表2   典型中高合金超高强钢的化学成分及力学性能[9,24,27~32]

Table 2  Chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical medium-high alloy ultra-high strength steels[9,24,27-32]

Steel type

Steel grade

Mass fraction / %

UTS

MPa

YS

MPa

Impact energy / J

Ref.

CMnCoCrNiMoTiOther
Secondary hardeningAF14100.1614.014.02.110.11.0--1655152061[24]
ultra-high strength steelAerMet1000.2313.513.53.011.21.2--1993176041[9]
HY1800.107.57.51.89.51.0--1413134585[30]
Maraging steel18Ni(250)-8.98.9-18.34.70.6-1854181935[31]
T250----183.01.50.1Al1860150058[27]
W250----19-1.24.5W + 0.1Al1800178025[32]
Precipitation-hardeningPH13-80.03--12.67.91.7-1.0Al1551144841[28]
(PH) ultra-highCustom4650.02--12.49.840.70.24-10801039150[29]
strength stainless steelFerriumS530.21-13.09.04.81.50.021.0W1986155118[28]

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1.1.3 马氏体时效钢

马氏体时效钢最早由国际镍公司研制，通过调控Fe-Ni马氏体基体中Co、Mo等元素的配比，发展出了18Ni(200)、18Ni(250)和18Ni(300)等系列牌号。与传统同强度等级的低合金超高强度钢相比，马氏体时效钢具备更优异的韧性，其典型成分中的Co含量通常高于9%，旨在促进含Mo金属间化合物的析出强化。然而，全球Co资源的稀缺导致其价格持续攀升，显著提高了含Co马氏体时效钢的成本，制约了该材料体系的进一步发展。

我国自20世纪60年代末起，启动了马氏体时效钢的研究工作，初期主要仿制18Ni系列钢种。至20世纪90年代，我国科研人员在18Ni钢的基础上进行成分优化，通过去除Co并适当提高Ni、Ti含量，成功开发出了T250钢[27]。目前，典型马氏体时效钢的成分与室温力学性能见表2[9,24,27~32]。与低合金超高强度钢及二次硬化超高强度钢不同，马氏体时效钢突破了以C作为主要强化元素的传统思路，转而借助Ni3Ti、Laves相、Ni3Mo、σ-FeTi和σ-FeMo等金属间化合物与马氏体基体之间的相互作用实现强化。这一强化机制使得马氏体时效钢对合金成分极为敏感，即使化学成分发生微小波动，也会显著影响第二相的析出行为。例如，降低Co含量会劣化析出动力学，导致力学性能不稳定甚至塑韧性下降[33]，这一特性也在一定程度上限制了其工程应用范围的拓展。

1.1.4 沉淀硬化超高强不锈钢

为提升超高强度钢的耐腐蚀性能，在马氏体时效钢的基础上发展出一类Cr含量高于12%的沉淀硬化型超高强度不锈钢。该钢种集高强度、高断裂韧性、优良焊接性、良好成形能力和卓越耐腐蚀性能于一体，已成为航空、航天及其他高端工程领域的关键材料。早期的代表性钢种主要为Armco Steel公司开发的17-4PH和17-7PH钢，其中17-4PH钢的综合性能尤为突出，其强韧性、焊接性及耐腐蚀性能均衡，至今仍被广泛应用[28]。随后，Carpenter公司通过提高Ni、Al等元素含量，开发出以Custom465为代表的第二代沉淀硬化不锈钢，其耐腐蚀性能进一步提升，但合金成本的增加也限制了其更广泛的使用[29]。

进入新世纪后，计算机辅助成分设计推动了沉淀硬化超高强不锈钢的发展。Kuehmann等[34]据此研发出新型不锈钢Ferrium S53，在10%Cr、5.5%Ni的基础上，适当调整C、Co比例，实现了1986 MPa的抗拉强度和55 MPa·m1/2的断裂韧性。我国自20世纪70年代起开展相关研究，先后研制出00Cr13Ni8-Mo2NbTi、00Cr12Ni8Cu2AlNb等十余种典型钢种。2002年，钢铁研究总院成功开发出具有自主知识产权的Cr-Ni-Co-Mo系USS122G钢，其强度突破1900 MPa，断裂韧性更超过90 MPa·m1/2 [28]。目前典型沉淀硬化超高强度不锈钢的成分与性能见表2[9,24,27~32]。

相比于低合金超高强度钢，中高合金超高强度钢通过将C含量降低至0.25%以下，显著提升了韧性、耐腐蚀性能和焊接性能等，但仍存在不足。一方面，中高合金超高强度钢中合金含量较高，如表3[1,35~37]所示，含有大量Cr、Co、Ni和Mo等贵重元素，合金成本高；另一方面，合金含量较高导致偏析严重，为了控制偏析需要增加精炼工序或延长热处理时间，显著增加了工艺成本并给大批量生产带来困难。因此，传统超高强度钢存在C含量较高、综合力学性能不足，或合金元素含量高、生产工艺复杂、综合成本高等问题，亟需研发低成本、可产业化、具有优异综合性能的“全能型”超高强度钢。

表3   传统超高强度钢的合金成分、显微组织、关键工艺、性能特征及缺点[1,35~37]

Table 3  Chemical compositions, microstructures, key processes, performance characteristics, and drawbacks of traditional ultra-high strength steels[1,35-37]

Steel typeChemical compositionMicrostructureKey processPerformance characteristicDrawbackRef.

Low-alloy ultra-high strength steel

C 0.25%-0.60%, Cr 5%, Si 5%, Ni 5%

Tempered martensite + fine dispersed carbides

Quenching + low temperature tempering, or isothermal quenching

Low cost and simple production process

Insufficient toughness, poor corrosion resistance and weldability

[35]

Secondary hardening ultra-high strength steelC 0.10%-0.40%, Cr 5%-25%, Ni 5%-25%, Co 5%-25%Tempered martensite (+ retained austenite) + carbides

Quenching + tempering

Excellent fatigue resistance and stress corrosion cracking resistance

High cost, prone to segregation

[36]

Maraging steel

C 0.1%, Ni 20%, Co 20%, Mo 20%Low-carbon Fe-Ni martensitic matrix + intermetallic compounds (such as Ni3Ti and Ni3Mo)

Solution treatment + aging

Good cold formability, simple heat treatment, and excellent weldabilitySensitive to compositional fluctuations, high cost

[37]

PH ultra-high strength stainless steel

C 0.25%, Cr 12%, Ni 12%

Tempered martensite + intermetallic compounds (such as NiAl, Ni3Ti, and Laves phase)

Solution treatment + aging

Good weldability, easy machinability, and excellent corrosion resistance

High Cr and Ni contents, high cost

[1]

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1.2 新型超高强度钢

1.2.1 面向性能的微观结构设计新思路

21世纪以来，复合纳米析出相、淬火-配分等调控手段的出现，为新型超高强度钢的研发提供了思路。当前新型超高强度钢的抗拉强度已突破了传统超高强度钢的极限，达到了3.0 GPa甚至更高。目前主要有两种思路：一是通过成分设计调控钢中析出相的种类、成分、共格程度、晶体结构等特征，寻求与基体共格程度更高的析出相或复合多种析出相；二是通过淬火-配分、低温贝氏体转变等工艺引入可抑制裂纹萌生和扩展的残余奥氏体等辅助相使得基体组织由传统的单相马氏体转变为多相复合组织，包括纳米贝氏体钢、高位错密度诱导大塑性变形-配分超高强度钢等。

在基于成分设计的析出相调控方面，新型马氏体时效钢与复合纳米析出相超高强度钢成为研究热点。Jiang等[38]通过设计与基体完全共格、高度弥散分布的Ni(Al, Fe)纳米析出相，成功开发出抗拉强度为2.2 GPa、断后伸长率为8.2%的超高强钢(图2a[38])。时效处理后，基体中均匀分布着数量密度极高的超细球形析出相(尺寸为2~5 nm)，其晶体结构为B2型富Ni/Al相(图2b和c[38])。部分析出相在位错线上形核，并在生长过程中排出Mo原子(图2d[38])。由于Mo在α-Fe基体中的扩散速率较低，该过程有效抑制了析出相的快速粗化，最终实现了组织的高度均匀性与析出相细化。

图2

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图2   新型马氏体时效钢的力学性能及析出相表征[38]

Fig.2   Stress-strain curves (a), TEM image and SAED pattern (inset) (b), atomic image taken from 110 and corresponding FFT patterns (c), and 3D-APT elemental distribution of precipitates (d) in the novel maraging steel[38] (% in Fig.2d represents atomic fraction)


传统上开发新型超高强度钢主要依赖“试错法”，即系统制备不同成分钢种并施以多种热处理工艺，由于析出相对基体合金元素含量极为敏感，这一过程通常成本较高且周期漫长。随着对材料“成分-工艺-结构-性能”关系的深入理解，集成计算预测与实验验证的现代设计方法正逐步成为主流[39]。例如，Xu等[40]结合热力学与物理冶金原理，建立了通用计算设计程序并引入遗传优化算法，成功开发出含MC碳化物、Cu纳米颗粒及Ni3Ti金属间化合物等多种强化相的新型超高强度钢。Jiao等[41]则借助Thermo-Calc软件，设计出具有B2结构NiAl与Cu纳米粒子复合组织的钢种，其抗拉强度达1.9 GPa，断后伸长率为10%。此外，诸如B2结构的NiAl、NiMn以及L21结构的NiAlTi、Ni2AlMn等复合析出体系亦受到广泛研究和关注[42~46]。

基于高共格纳米析出相或复合型析出相(如bcc结构Cu、B2结构NiAl、L21结构Ni2AlTi和Ni3Ti等)强化的新型超高强度钢，通常具有低碳(C 0.1%)和高合金元素( 10%)的成分特征[47]。该类钢热处理工艺较为简化，仅需固溶时效处理即可实现优异的强韧性匹配。但其高合金含量也使得成本上升，且析出相的类型、成分及析出顺序对成分波动极为敏感，因而在产业化方面仍面临挑战。

通过调控多相复合组织所开发的新型超高强度钢主要包括纳米贝氏体钢、高位错密度诱导大塑性变形-配分超高强度钢等。Bhadeshia和Edmonds[48]利用Si元素抑制碳化物析出，成功开发出纳米贝氏体钢。研究[49]表明，其抗拉强度最高达2.5 GPa，屈服强度为1.5 GPa，延伸率介于5%~30%，断裂韧性约为40 MPa·m1/2。其中纳米级、C过饱和的铁素体带来显著的细晶与固溶强化效果，而板条间分布的残余奥氏体薄膜在应力作用下可发生马氏体相变，有效提升塑韧性，并增强对裂纹扩展的阻碍。然而，其工业化应用受限于大尺寸构件在低温贝氏体转变过程中所需的极长转变周期，导致生产效率低下及成本高昂。

高位错密度组织在提供高强度的同时通常伴随塑性损失，但当存在大量可动位错时，材料可能展现出不同的变形行为。He等[50]通过对中锰钢施加热轧、温轧、两相区退火、冷轧及低温回火等复合工艺，构建出亚稳态奥氏体板条嵌于高位错密度马氏体基体的复合组织(图3a[50])，研制出抗拉强度2.2 GPa、断后伸长率16%的高性能大塑性变形-配分(SPD-DP)钢(图3b[50])。He等[50]提出了全新的位错机制，即位错密度的提高不仅可以增加强度，还可以提升延伸率。在位错密度较高时，位错相互作用较大，形成位错缠结，难以开动并产生塑性变形，SPD-DP钢具有较高的强度。当应力达到2200 MPa时，大量的位错突然可以开动，从而产生了较高的塑性。

图3

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图3   高位错密度诱导大塑性变形-配分超高强度钢的微观组织形貌、观察方向及拉伸曲线[50]

Fig.3   Microstructure morphologies and observation direction (a) and engineering stress-strain curves (b) of the ultra-high strength steel subjected to severe plastic deformation and partitioning induced by high dislocation density[50] (ND—normal direction, TD—transverse direction, RD—rolling direction. a-d in Fig.3b represent steels with different treatment processes)


对于具有马氏体/贝氏体+残余奥氏体多相复合基体组织的新型超高强度钢，其C含量为0.25%~0.60%，合金元素含量一般低于10%。虽然具有良好的力学性能，但较高的C含量使其焊接性能较差；此外，该新型超高强度钢加工工艺复杂，需要严格控制变形参数和热处理工艺，尤其是纳米贝氏体钢需要1~60 d的长时间等温转变。新型超高强度钢的化学成分、显微组织、关键工艺、力学性能及缺点如表4[38,41,46,50~53]所示。

表4   新型超高强度钢的化学成分、显微组织、关键工艺和力学性能及缺点[38,41,46,50~53]

Table 4  Chemical compositions, microstructures, key processes, mechanical properties, and drawbacks of novel ultra-high strength steels[38,41,46,50-53]

Steel typeChemical compositionMicrostructureKey processMechanical propertyDrawbackRef.

Novel maraging steel

0.08%C-18%Ni-3%Al-4%Mo-0.8%NbMartensite + high density Ni(Al, Fe) coherent nano-precipitates

Solution treatment + aging

UTS = 2200 MPa, EL = 8%High Ni content and high alloy cost

[38]

Ultra-high strength steel with composite nano-precipitates

C 0.1%，Ni 10%, Cr 10%, Co 10%

Martensite + composite nano-precipitates (NiAl, Laves phase, MC carbide, Cu particles)

Solution treatment + aging

UTS 1800 MPa, EL 8%

Precipitate composition and sequence sensitive to chemical composition

[41,46]

Ultra-high strength steel with multiphase composite microstructure

C 0.25%-0.6%，Mn 5%, Cr 5%

Martensite (+ bainite) + retained austenite + small carbideQuenching + partitioning (+ tempering)UTS = 2000 MPa, EL = 10%Poor weldability, microstructure sensitive to composition

[51,52]

Nanostructured bainitic steel

C 0.3%，Ni 10%, Si 10%, Mn 10%

Bainitic ferrite lath (20-40 nm) + retained austenite (volume fraction 20%)

Bainite isothermal transformation + tempering/partitioning/cryogenic treatment

UTS = 2500 MPa, EL 8%

Long isothermal transformation period, poor weldability

[53]

Ultra-high strength steel subjected to severe plastic deformation and partitioning induced by high dislocation density

0.47%C-10%Mn-2%Al-0.7%V

High density dislocation martensite + metastable austenite

Cold rolling + low temperature tempering

YS 2200 MPa, EL 16%

Complex processing, deformation parameters and heat treatment need stir control

[50]

Note: EL—elongation

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多相基体组织与复合析出相之间复杂的相互作用制约着上述两种新型超高强度钢工艺的融合发展，是发展新型超高强度钢面临的问题和难点。总之，超高强度钢由传统上最初的单相马氏体组织与半共格或非共格析出相逐渐向新型的板条马氏体、贝氏体铁素体、残余奥氏体及由各种纳米共格析出相强化/多相复合的组织转变。

1.2.2 基于先进制备技术的组织调控新路径

除了通过成分设计调控微观组织外，近年来快速发展的以增材制造为代表的先进制备技术，也为超高强度钢的组织调控与性能提升提供了全新的路径[54,55]。这些技术通过局部快速熔凝与逐层堆积，可实现复杂几何构件的近净成形，并在快速凝固过程中形成细晶组织与高位错密度，为后续热处理中的析出相调控创造了有利条件。

当前在超高强度钢中广泛采用的增材制造技术主要为激光粉末床熔融(L-PBF)、激光直接能量沉积(L-DED)和电弧增材制造(WAAM)。L-PBF技术原理如图4a[56]所示，快速熔凝产生的细小树枝晶和高位错密度马氏体为后续时效处理过程中析出高密度纳米析出相提供了理想条件。但L-PBF技术存在设备昂贵、成型速率慢、成型件尺寸小等缺点，限制了其进一步的应用与发展[57]。L-DED技术原理如图4b[58]所示，其沉积效率高，常适用于大尺寸构件的修复及制备，适合梯度成分设计和近净成形，但其制备样品的表面精度通常低于L-PBF技术。对于WAAM领域，气体保护金属极电弧焊(GMAW)、气体保护钨极电弧焊(GTAW)、等离子弧焊(PAW)是三种最核心和常用的电弧热源技术，其技术原理如图4c[59]所示。由于其具有成形效率极高、成本低和丝材利用率高的特点，是大尺寸、低成本超高强度钢构件制造的重要方向。

图4

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图4   三种典型增材制造工艺示意图：激光粉末床熔融[56]、激光直接能量沉积[58]及电弧增材制造[59]

Fig.4   Schematics of three typical additive manufacturing techniques

(a) laser powder bed fusion[56] (F-θ lens represents flat field focusing lens)

(b) laser directed energy deposition[58]

(c) wire arc additive manufacturing[59] (DC—direct current, GMAW—gas metal arc welding, GTAW—gas tungsten arc welding, PAW—plasma arc welding)


近年来，增材制造在超高强度钢中的应用研究主要集中在中高合金超高强度钢方向[60]，为其组织调控与性能优化提供了新的可能。以L-PBF技术为例，其在超高强度钢中的应用已取得显著进展。例如，Tan等[61,62]通过优化激光功率、扫描速率等工艺参数，成功制备出致密度超过99%的18Ni300马氏体时效钢试样，经时效处理后其抗拉强度可达2000 MPa以上，延伸率仍保持约5%，性能与传统锻件相当。Jägle等[63]利用原子探针层析技术(APT)分析了L-PBF成型马氏体时效钢在时效过程中的析出行为，发现纳米级Ni3Ti和Fe2Mo等析出相在基体中均匀分布，强化机制符合Orowan位错绕过模型。此外，针对成型方向引起的各向异性问题，多项研究[64,65]表明，通过合理的扫描策略(如层间旋转扫描)与后续热处理，可有效抑制力学性能的方向依赖性，使不同取向试样的强度与韧性趋于一致。

在梯度材料与复合制造方面，Tan等[66]采用L-PBF技术在Cu基体上成功制备出冶金结合良好的马氏体时效钢-Cu梯度结构材料，界面处元素互扩散明显，结合强度甚至优于母材。Cyr等[67]则在H13工具钢上激光沉积马氏体时效钢，通过协调两种材料的热处理工艺，实现了强度与韧性的良好匹配，为模具复合制造提供了新思路。综上所述，基于增材制造的复合工艺不仅拓展了材料的设计自由度，也为构件实现结构-功能一体化提供了可行路径。然而，增材制造过程中易产生孔隙、微裂纹及较大残余应力，影响材料的致密性与疲劳性能。未来研究需进一步探索工艺参数(如激光功率、扫描策略、层间温度控制)与合金成分的协同设计，结合机器学习等方法优化工艺窗口，以实现超高强度钢在增材制造过程中的组织均匀性与性能可控性。增材制造技术为超高强度钢的“设计-制备-性能”一体化提供了新思路，尤其在航空航天、医疗器械等对构件轻量化与个性化要求极高的领域展现出广阔的应用前景。

1.3 “混杂化(hybrid)”超高强度钢的提出与发展

为满足我国重大装备在极端复杂环境下的升级需求，亟需开发兼具超高强度、高韧性及优良焊接性、耐腐蚀及耐高温等综合性能的“全能型”超高强度钢。当前，该类材料在合金设计、性能平衡与产业化应用之间仍存在一系列耦合难题，具体表现如下。

1.3.1 合金和工艺成本高

为追求超高强韧性，现有钢种通常采用高碳或高合金化设计，不仅原材料成本高，还易引发成分偏析。为抑制偏析需增加精炼工序或延长热处理周期，导致制备流程复杂、整体成本上升。此外，基于淬火获得马氏体的工艺易引起构件变形，后续需进行精加工修形，进一步增加了制造成本。

1.3.2 力学、工艺和服役性能不足

超高强度钢的超高强韧性能使其常作为海洋、高温、复杂应力等极端服役环境下备选的关键工程材料，但是高碳或高合金的成分特点往往使其焊接等工艺性能较差。此外，超高强度钢在服役性能方面仍存在不足：一方面，耐腐蚀性能仍有不足，限制了其在海洋环境中的应用；另一方面，由于高温下析出相发生熟化，微观组织易损伤，导致强度、硬度退化，限制了其在高温环境中的应用[68~70]。

1.3.3 产业化推进困难

尽管借助析出相调控或多相复合结构设计，部分新型超高强度钢实现了力学性能的突破，但这通常伴随合金与工艺成本的大幅提升。此外，许多在实验室中验证成功的制备工艺难以直接放大至工业生产规模，关键工程化问题尚未有效解决，制约了其实际推广与应用。

21世纪以来，在碳达峰碳中和背景下，研究人员提出了低密度化[71]、素化[72]、“hybrid”[73,74]等先进钢铁材料绿色低碳设计新理念。其中，“hybrid”[73]新理念是由瑞典Ovako特殊钢公司于2019年基于成熟的洁净钢技术提出的，如图5所示。该理念突破传统上钢种间的界限，从多钢种中提取成分特征与优势属性进行混合、杂化，实现“一钢多用”。无独有偶，我国于2017年发布了索氏体高强不锈结构钢S600E (12Cr14Ni2)[74]，混合、杂化了不锈钢、耐候钢、抗震钢的成分特征与优势，其实质与“hybrid”新理念不谋而合。实现了不锈钢向结构钢的跨越，具有高强塑、抗震、高耐蚀、易焊接等优异综合性能。国内外的科学研究和实践均表明，“hybrid”新理念为研发新概念先进钢铁材料提供了全新思路。

图5

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图5   “混杂化(hybrid)”设计理念

Fig.5   “hybrid” design concept (HAZ—heat affected zone)


作者团队[75]基于图5的设计理念制备了合金和工艺成本低、综合性能优异并易产业化的“全能型”超高强度钢。经1020 ℃固溶+ 540 ℃时效8 h处理后，钢的抗拉强度为2009 MPa、断后伸长率为9.5%，且在500 ℃时仍具有1400 MPa的抗拉强度。时效后由于析出相与位错的协同作用，其屈服强度由940 MPa提升到1654 MPa。

已有大量工作验证了“hybrid”思路的技术可行性，明确了“hybrid”超高强度钢具有优异的超高强韧性匹配潜力。且由于其混杂多钢种的设计理念，“hybrid”超高强度钢仍具有一定的耐腐蚀性能和焊接性能，适用于大型客机的起落架、机翼大梁等重要承重构件。但是，单就“hybrid”超高强度钢的力学性能而言，2.0 GPa抗拉强度、9.5%断后伸长率相比于现有超高强度钢并没有优势。其第二相析出行为与强化机理尚不清楚，成为限制强塑性进一步提升的瓶颈。总体而言，突破传统上钢种间的界限，混合、杂化多钢种特性与复合多种强化机制的“hybrid”理念符合碳达峰碳中和背景下绿色低碳合金化设计发展方向，为新概念钢铁材料的研发提供了思路。

2 超高强度钢中的析出相演变规律

超高强度和良好韧性作为超高强度钢的核心性能，并不是由一种强化机制所决定的，而是由多种强化机制协同决定的。析出强化作为强化机理中不可或缺的一部分，对屈服强度增强效果显著，且工艺流程简单。由于不同类型超高强度钢的合金元素种类、含量不同，其中起到强化作用的析出相种类也不同。

2.1 析出相种类及结构特征

传统超高强度钢中的析出相多为与基体半共格或非共格的合金碳化物、金属间化合物，虽然能够提供较好的析出强化效果，但共格程度低会导致韧性较差。

2.1.1 碳化物

碳化物多在低合金超高强度钢、二次硬化超高强度钢中析出，其中低合金超高强度钢中的析出相主要为ε-碳化物；二次硬化超高强度钢中的析出相主要为MC、M2C、M7C3和M23C6等碳化物，部分典型碳化物形貌如图6[76~78]所示。

图6

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图6   超高强度钢中典型碳化物形貌[76~78]

Fig.6   TEM images showing morphologies of ε-carbide[76] (a), M3C[77] (b), MC[78] (c), M23C6[78] (d), and M6C[78] (e) typical carbides in ultra-high strength steels (Insets in Figs.8c-e are corresponding SAED patterns)


ε-碳化物通常在100~250 ℃的回火处理过程中形成，其在马氏体基体的特定晶面上偏聚并有序化，生成尺寸极为细小且与母相保持共格关系的碳化物颗粒。随着回火温度升高，ε-碳化物将逐渐转变为更稳定的渗碳体，易于在晶界和板条界等位置析出，诱发沿晶断裂并导致回火脆性。为延缓其向渗碳体的转变，通常可在钢中添加约2%的Si元素[79]。

在低合金超高强度钢中引入Cr、Mo等强碳化物形成元素后，通过提高回火温度可使ε-碳化物和渗碳体等粗大碳化物溶解，进而析出更为细小的(Cr, Mo)2C型碳化物。Mo2C和Cr2C的晶格常数分别为0.301 nm[80]和0.282 nm[81]，均低于基体铁素体的晶格常数(约0.288 nm)。随着M2C中Cr含量增加，其晶格参数a进一步减小，有助于降低形核初期碳化物与基体间的共格应变能。(Cr, Mo)2C倾向于在位错线上形核，为促进其高密度析出，通常需添加10%以上的Co元素，以抑制回火过程中的位错回复。

此外，低合金超高强度钢中还可能存在M23C6、M6C和MC等具有fcc结构的碳化物。其中，M23C6主要含有Cr元素，其中约40%的Cr原子可被Fe原子替代，同时伴有Mn、V、Ni等元素的富集；M6C主要富含Fe、Mo/W元素；MC碳化物则主要包含V、Nb、Ti等微合金化元素。部分典型碳化物晶体结构如表5[82~89]所示。

表5   超高强度钢中典型碳化物、金属间化合物及纳米团簇特征[82~89]

Table 5  Characteristics of typical carbides, intermetallic compounds, and nanoclusters in ultra-high strength steel[82-89]

PrecipitatePhaseCrystal structureChemical compositionTypical orientation relationshipShape

Carbide

MCfcc(Ti, Mo, Nb, V)C(100) MC//(100) α, [010] MC//[011] αDisk-like

M2C

(η-carbide)

hcp(Mo, Cr, V, Mn)2C(110) η //(101) α, [001] η //[100] αIrregular
ε-carbidehcpFe2.4C[21¯1¯0] ε //[11¯1] αNeedle-like
M3COrthorhombic structure(Fe, Mn, Cr)3C(001)M3C//(1¯12) α, [100]M3C//[01¯1] αNeedle-like
M7C3hcp(Cr, Fe)7C3-Fine and dispersed
M23C6fcc(Cr, Fe, Mo)23C6(100)M23C6//(100) α, [010]M23C6//[010] αChain-like
M6Cfcc

(Ni, Co)6C,

(Fe, W, Mo)6C

(001)M6C/(011) α, [110]M6C//[111] αCubic

Intermetallic

compound and

Cubcc, 9R, fccCu, Fe, Al, Ni, Mn(110)9R//(111) α, [114¯]9R//[01¯1] αSpherical, elongated
nanoclusterNi3Mhcp, fcc,(Ni, Fe, Co)3(Ti, Mo, Al)(010)Ni3Mo//(011)B, [100]Ni3Mo//[111¯]BDisk-like, rod-like
NiAlB2, bccNi, Al, Mn, Fe, Cu{001}NiAl//{001}B, 110NiAl//110BSpherical, elongated

Fe2M

(Laves phase)

hcpFe2(Mo, Nb, W)(011¯2)Fe2W//(001) α, [011¯1¯]Fe2W//[11¯0] αSpherical, irregular

Note: subscript B represents matrix

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2.1.2 金属间化合物及纳米团簇

金属间化合物多在马氏体时效钢和沉淀硬化超高强不锈钢中析出，主要为Fe2Mo、Ni3Mo等。Fe2Mo、FeCr等析出相与基体共格程度较低，倾向于沿晶界、位错或层错等缺陷位置非均匀形核，导致其在基体中分布不均。相比之下，高共格析出相能够实现整体均匀形核，易形成密度高、尺寸细小的强化颗粒，因而受到更多关注。近几年研究[41]表明，与bcc结构Fe基体共格程度较高的析出相主要有两类：一类是bcc结构或其派生结构析出相，例如bcc-Cu，B2-NiAl，L21-Ni2AlTi，Ni2AlMn等；另一类是hcp结构析出相，例如Ni3Ti，Mo2C等。前者与基体的高共格程度是由于析出相的晶面与bcc结构Fe基体的立方体平面近似重合，后者则是由于析出相紧密堆积方向与bcc结构Fe基体的立方体方向近似重合，部分典型金属间化合物及纳米团簇结构的特征如表5[82~89]所示。

Cu在bcc结构Fe基体中的固溶度较低，因此在时效处理初期即易于析出。在峰值时效阶段，Cu团簇的弹性模量和点阵常数与基体存在显著差异，从而产生突出的强化作用。在析出过程中，Cu原子倾向于在Ni元素周围偏聚，这有助于降低体系的弹性应变能与界面能，进而促进Cu团簇的形成。钢中Cu团簇通常以bcc、9R和fcc三种晶体结构存在，在一定条件下依次由bcc转变为9R，最终转变为fcc结构[86]。

Ni3M是传统马氏体时效钢中常见的第二相强化粒子。其中，Ni3Ti通常呈球状或短棒状，具有hcp结构；而Ni3Al则为L12型有序超点阵结构，其在高温下仍能保持稳定，有助于提升合金的高温性能[90]。在马氏体时效钢中，NiAl相具有B2型bcc结构。当Ni和Al原子在时效过程中通过扩散聚集后，能够在基体中形成均匀分布且与基体共格的纳米析出相。由于NiAl相与马氏体基体之间保持高度的共格关系，其所产生的高共格应变场可有效阻碍位错运动，从而在提高强度的同时不显著损害塑性。相比之下，Laves相与基体的共格程度较差，其强化机制主要为位错绕过机制(Orowan机制)。尽管Laves相也能提供一定的析出强化效果，但其易于在晶界处析出或发生粗化，往往对材料的韧性产生不利影响。

2.2 多种金属间化合物之间的复合析出行为

在新型超高强度钢中，提升性能不仅可通过提高析出相共格程度实现，还可借助多种析出相的复合强化达到强度与塑韧性协同提升的目标。目前已开发的复合析出体系包括Cu/NiAl、B2-NiAl/η-Ni3Ti、B2结构NiAl/L21-Ni2TiAl等。此类复合析出行为对成分变化十分敏感，以Cu/NiAl体系为例，其析出机制受Cu∶Ni与Cu∶Al质量比调控，当比例较高时，Ni和Al倾向于在Cu团簇与基体界面处偏聚，降低界面能并促进Cu/NiAl型复合析出相形成；当比例较低时，Cu则溶入NiAl粒子，随后在时效过程中被排出，形成NiAl/Cu型复合相，如图7a[91]所示。

图7

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图7   新型超高强度钢中典型复合析出相的析出机制[91,92,94,95]

Fig.7   Precipitation mechanisms of typical composite precipitates in novel ultra-high strength steels

(a) Cu/NiAl[91] (b) B2-NiAl/η-Ni3Ti[92] (c) B2-NiAl/L21-Ni2TiAl[94] (d) NiMn/Ni2AlMn[95]


η-Ni3Ti是马氏体时效钢中最常见且有效的强化相之一，在Fe-Ni-Ti系钢中添加Al元素后可形成B2-NiAl/η-Ni3Ti复合析出结构(图7b[92])。其中，NiAl相为富含Ni、Al的球形颗粒，同时含有少量的Fe元素，Ni∶(Al + Fe)原子比接近1∶1；Ni3Ti则为富Ni、Ti的长条形颗粒，其中含有少量Al元素，Ni∶(Ti + Al)原子比约为3∶1。进一步引入Cu元素将使该复合体系的析出行为更趋复杂。在NiAl型纳米颗粒中，Cu可替代部分Al原子，从而减小其与基体的晶格错配度，降低形核能垒。而对于Ni3Ti相，Cu则通过形成独立的富Cu纳米团簇，为Ni3Ti的形核提供优先位置[93]。

在Fe-Ni-Al合金中添加微量Ti可诱导形成B2-NiAl与L21-Ni2TiAl的复合结构(图7c[94])。在时效处理初期，NiAl纳米颗粒首先从基体中析出；随时效进程推进，Ni2TiAl在NiAl纳米颗粒中形成，如图7c[94]中绿色区域所示。NiAl与Ni2TiAl复合结构呈现出典型的三级层次特征：具有化学无序的bcc结构Fe基体，临近的B2-NiAl颗粒及其内部L21-Ni2TiAl相；具有连续的bcc结构Fe基体，尺寸为60~200 nm的NiAl颗粒，尺寸为12~20 nm的Ni2TiAl相；在空间层次中，NiAl颗粒嵌入bcc结构Fe基体中，且Ni2TiAl仅在NiAl颗粒内形核和生长[94]。

NiMn析出相主要出现在Fe-Ni-Mn新一代低成本马氏体时效钢中，钢中加入少量Al元素后，可实现B2结构NiMn相转变为L21结构Ni2AlMn相 (图7d[95])。其中，NiMn型颗粒成分为50Ni-35Mn-12.5Fe-5Ti-2.5Al (原子分数，%，下同)，Ni2AlMn型颗粒成分为50Ni-20Mn-20Al-10Fe。相比于NiMn析出相，Ni2AlMn型析出相与基体之间的低错配使得临界成核半径更小[95]。因此，在高铝钢中，Ni2AlMn的弥散性远优于低铝钢中的NiMn析出相，具有更高的时效硬化响应率。

得益于不同类型、尺寸及分布的金属间化合物的协同作用，其颗粒分散性得到一定改善。因此，多种金属间化合物复合析出所带来的强化效果，通常优于单一类型的析出相，为开发兼具更高强度与更优塑韧性的超高强度钢提供了可行路径。然而，金属间化合物析出相的形成对合金成分波动较为敏感，而多种金属间化合物的复合析出进一步加剧了这一敏感性。因此，为实现具有多种金属间化合物复合结构的超高强度钢的工业化生产，仍需筛选出对成分波动不敏感、具有较宽工艺窗口的金属间化合物类型。

2.3 碳化物与金属间化合物的协同析出行为

除马氏体时效钢中多种金属间化合物的复合析出体系外，碳化物与金属间化合物的复合析出模式也受到广泛关注，其中最具代表性的是B2型NiAl金属间化合物与六方结构M2C碳化物的协同析出。基于此开发的GE1014、ML340等钢种已成功应用于400~450 ℃高温环境下的发动机主轴等关键部件。Delagnes等[96]对GE1014钢中第二相析出行为的研究表明，NiAl的析出速率显著高于M2C碳化物。这主要源于其形核初期的界面能(约35 mJ/m2)仅为M2C的四分之一[97]。在NiAl析出过程中，Mo、Cr等元素被排出至相界，进而促使M2C碳化物依附于NiAl相表面形核。为进一步提升性能，Wang等[98]通过提高Co、Ni含量，设计出成分为Fe-0.26C-13.5Co-14.2Ni-1.2Al-2.1Cr-1.8Mo-0.6W (质量分数，%，下同)的二次硬化超高强度钢。借助NiAl与M2C的复合析出协同作用，该钢在实现2.3 GPa抗拉强度的同时，延伸率仍保持9%。结果表明，NiAl相不仅诱导了M2C碳化物形核，还有效抑制了其粗化过程，两种析出相的典型形貌如图8[97,99]所示。

图8

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图8   超高强度钢中NiAl和M2C复合析出结构、M2C、NiAl的TEM分析及NiAl与M2C的复合析出机制[97,99]

Fig.8   TEM analyses of co-precipitation of NiAl and M2C[97] (a), M2C[99] (b), and NiAl[99] (c) in ultra-high strength steels; co-precipitation mechanism of NiAl and M2C[97] (d) (% in Fig.8d is atomic fraction. Arrows in Fig.8d refer to element diffusion)


Zhu等[99]通过优化合金设计，在降低Co含量的基础上开发出Fe-0.23C-5Co-11Ni-3Cr-1.3Mo-1Al新型超高强度钢，系统探讨了时效温度对NiAl与M2C复合析出行为的作用规律。结果表明，在427和454 ℃时效时，组织中除少量渗碳体外，开始形成针状M2C碳化物和NiAl金属间化合物；随着温度升高，NiAl相数量逐渐减少，而尺寸明显增大。当温度升至482 ℃时，渗碳体完全溶解，材料的力学性能达到最佳状态，抗拉强度为2185 MPa。另外，Liu等[100]在M54钢中添加1%Al，借助NiAl与M2C的协同析出强化，将材料强度提升约30%，抗拉强度达到2.7 GPa，同时仍保持良好的延伸率。

此外，其他金属间化合物及纳米团簇与碳化物之间的复合析出也受到了广泛关注。Xiao等[101]研究了Ferrium S53马氏体时效钢中纳米Cu团簇与M2C碳化物的复合析出过程，发现纳米Cu团簇的析出早于M2C，且随着时效时间的增加，富Cu粒子由bcc和9R结构向着fcc结构转变。475 ℃时效5 h后，富Cu粒子的尺寸迅速增大且数量迅速增加；当时效时间增加至10 h后，M2C碳化物数量增多，抑制了富Cu粒子的粗化。在富Cu粒子的形核和生长过程中，Cr、Mo、W等元素被排出并在其表面富集，促进了M2C碳化物的形成。

Peng等[102]通过优化合金设计开发出了一种新型超高强度钢，其成分为Fe-0.08C-4.32Ni-1.18Al-0.88Cu-3.86Mo-5.03Cr-0.3Si-1.5Mn，通过将纳米级的B2结构NiAl、富Cu粒子与M2C碳化物相结合，使其在抗拉强度达到1665.9 MPa的同时，延伸率达到17.5%。550 ℃时效8 h后，析出相主要由NiAl、9R结构Cu和M2C碳化物组成；随着时效时间的增加，9R结构Cu向着fcc结构转变，M2C转变为M6C，且部分M6C转变为Laves相，此时析出相主要为NiAl、fcc结构Cu、M6C、Laves相。结果表明，在峰值时效条件下，Ni∶Cu原子比为4.9和Al∶Cu原子比为1.3时更有利于NiAl的析出。

综上所述，超高强度钢中的碳化物与金属间化合物的复合析出已受到广泛关注，当前通过引入多元合金元素并优化热处理工艺，实现了M2C碳化物与β-NiAl相等纳米级复合析出相的高密度均匀分布，借助其与基体形成的共格/半共格界面及位错切过等机制，协同增强了材料的强度、韧性和塑性。然而，该领域仍面临成分-工艺-组织关联复杂、传统试错研发效率低，以及析出相稳定性控制难、高强塑性匹配窗口狭窄等问题，尤其在保证超高强度(如≥ 1.7 GPa)的同时实现高均匀延伸率( 10%)仍具挑战。未来发展趋势将聚焦于融合机器学习等先进计算方法以加速成分与工艺设计，并借鉴高熵合金理念构建多相、多尺度复合析出组织，进一步推动高性能、低成本超高强度钢的开发与应用。

3 超高强度钢室温及高温下强化机理研究现状

超高强度钢的力学性能，特别是其强度-塑性的协同提升从根本上源于其复杂的微观组织结构。马氏体基体的精细亚结构及其内部高密度位错构成了材料强韧化的基础框架。在此基础上引入的纳米析出相，通过与基体相互作用产生显著的协同强化效应，成为进一步提升强度的关键。然而，此类纳米结构在高温服役环境下面临粗化(Ostwald熟化)失稳的风险，其演化规律直接决定着材料的热稳定性和使用寿命。

3.1 基体组织及位错密度调控

马氏体基体的强度主要源于固溶强化、细晶强化和位错强化[103]。马氏体块(block)的尺寸被认为是有效晶粒尺寸，晶界强化通常用Hall-Petch关系式表示[104]，位错强化可以用Taylor公式表示[105]，因此细晶强化和位错强化贡献的强度(Δσ)可以通过下式计算：

Δσ=300dblock+0.25Mμbρ

式中，M为Taylor取向因子，b为Burgers矢量模，μ为基体的剪切模量，ρ为位错密度，dblock为马氏体块的平均尺寸。

Ni、Co、Ti和Mo等合金元素溶于基体晶体点阵中使其发生畸变，从而产生弹性应力场并与位错周围的弹性应力场发生交互作用，阻碍位错在晶格中的运动。同时，溶质原子可以附着于位错割阶并对位错运动起到钉扎作用。由置换原子引起的固溶强化增量(Δσss)，可用Fleischer方程计算[106,107]：

Δσss=∑βi2xi1/2

式中，xi为溶质原子i在基体中的原子分数；βi为固溶强化系数，其与溶质原子电荷性质、基体模量等因素有关，其中，βNi = 334、βTi = 2628、βMo = 2143、βCo = 334[106,107]。

超高强度钢的塑性强弱与马氏体变形能力息息相关，而马氏体变形能力由其空间几何排列方式和晶体学取向综合决定。有利的空间几何排列方式能够激发马氏体板条面滑移系的开动，增强基体的可持续变形能力，从而获得较高塑性。Li等[108]通过对低成本中锰钢(Fe-7.4Mn-0.34C-1Si-0.2V)进行多向锻造、深冷、配分处理，获得了I型和II型两种不同排列方式的马氏体结构。I型马氏体基本完全平行于长度方向(LD)排列，II型马氏体与LD呈40°~50°的倾斜方式排列。在变形过程中，I型马氏体内及界面处的大量位错能够以平行板条界面的方式长距离滑移，增大位错运动的平均自由程，产生塑化效果。同时，由于钢中存在大量的块状、薄膜状奥氏体，进一步增加了相变诱导塑性机制，使得钢的强度达到2.2 GPa，并具备25%的优异延伸率。

如何调控基体位错密度和滑移方式对超高强度钢综合力学性能的优化至关重要，马氏体基体位错密度一般在1014~1015 m-2[109~111]，对强度的贡献约为200~600 MPa。更高的位错密度使得位错在塑性变形过程中的滑移阻力增大，对材料塑性产生不利影响。因此，如何调控位错从而实现超高强度钢的强塑性协同提升是当前面临的难题。

3.2 析出相与基体协同强化机理

纳米粒子的析出强化是超高强度钢最为主要的强化方式，而其强化根源主要来自析出相与基体中位错的交互作用。根据析出相与滑移位错的交互作用可以得到两种不同的强化机制：位错绕过析出相并留下环绕颗粒的位错环的Orowan机制，以及位错切过析出相的切过机制。通常与基体共格、半共格的细小纳米粒子遵循切过机制，而较为粗大的与基体非共格的纳米粒子遵循绕过机制[112]。两种机制在一定条件下可以发生转换，转化的临界尺寸可通过以下公式计算[113]：

dclndc2b=0.209Gb2Kγ

式中，dc为两种机制相互转换的临界尺寸；G为剪切模量；γ为基体与析出相之间的界面能；K为与位错相关常数，对于刃型位错而言，K = (1 - v) (其中，v为Poisson比)；对于螺型位错，K = 1；对于混合位错，1K=121+11-v。

对于Orowan绕过机制，析出相与基体之间强化作用贡献的强度(ΔσOrowan)可用以下公式计算[114,115]：

ΔσOrowan=lnX / 2b∙0.538Gb∙f / X

式中，X为析出相平均尺寸，f为析出相体积分数。

切过机制中析出相对屈服强度的贡献(Δσcut)可通过以下公式计算[113]：

Δσcut=Δσcoherency+Δσorder+Δσmodulus+Δσinterface=
1.18Ge32f12d2b56+γAP2b2γAPdfπTd1/2-f+
0.9TdbΔGG322blndbf1/2-32d / 212f12+
1.1γ32d12f122AGb2

式中，Δσcoherency、Δσorder、Δσmodulus和Δσinterface分别为共格强化、有序强化、模量强化、界面能强化贡献的强度；d为析出相的平均尺寸；e为共格应变；γAP为反相畴界能；Td为位错线张力，Td≈Gb2 / 2；ΔG为析出相与基体的横量差；A为位错线张力函数。在钢铁材料中，ΔG所造成的强化作用相对较小，故最重要的强化效果来源于共格应变强化和界面能强化。对于与基体完全共格的析出相而言，共格应变强化起主要作用；而对于与基体部分共格或半共格的析出相而言，界面能强化起主要作用。

绕过机制和切过机制不仅与析出相本身有关，而且与其周围基体中的位错存在较大关系。在fcc合金的拉伸变形过程中，B2结构NiAl相通常被认为是不可变形的，位错与其关系为绕过机制。而Wang等[116]研究发现，可以通过局部化学有序和大量固溶体强化邻近B2金属间化合物的基体从而提升其韧性，进而实现将绕过机制转变为切过机制。该结果虽然是基于fcc合金体系所发现的，但其内在机理对超高强度钢中析出相与位错之间的调控有很好的启发。钢中部分半共格纳米粒子可增加位错可动性，以纳米Cu粒子为例：钢中螺位错在切应力(τ)的作用下，从一个Peierls能谷向相邻能谷滑移时，首先形成双弯结构，随后在切应力作用下快速移动，带动整根位错跃过Peierls能谷。而半共格的Cu纳米粒子由于周围存在弹性晶格畸变，可作为错配中心，在其共格畸变应力场的作用下螺位错自动弯曲，降低了位错双弯结构的形成能[117]。

3.3 高温下马氏体基体与纳米析出相演变规律

超高强度钢在高温环境下的强化机制与马氏体板条的组织热稳定性密切相关。在高温作用下，位错发生湮灭和回复，使位错滑移阻力下降，滑动位错与板条边界之间发生所谓的“针织反应”，进而释放内部应力场。此外，亚晶粒在高温下的粗化以及纳米析出相的长大，均会减弱其对边界的钉扎作用[118,119]。Baird[120]指出，相较于单一元素固溶，多种合金元素的复合固溶更能有效提升高温持久强度。其原因在于不同元素的协同固溶可增强对位错滑移的阻碍，并对扩散控制的变形行为产生更强的抑制效应。

此外，纳米析出相的热稳定性对于超高强度钢的高温应用具有重要意义，分布于晶界处的析出相往往可以对晶界起到钉扎作用，阻碍位错运动和抑制板条回复。Zener钉扎效应[121]揭示了在高温条件下析出粒子抑制晶粒粗化的作用，当析出相尺寸满足以下条件时，对晶粒生长的钉扎力和晶粒长大驱动力相互平衡：

Dc=Ydf

式中，Dc为析出相对晶粒钉扎力与驱动力相同时的临界晶粒尺寸，Y为常数。该推导是建立在析出粒子在晶界处的界面张力均保持平衡的理想条件下，忽略了析出粒子非共格与共格析出间的差异。Gladman[122]对临界晶粒尺寸计算进行了优化，具体公式如下：

Dc=πd6f32-2Z

式中，Z为晶粒尺寸不均匀因子，其值约为1.7。可见，析出相体积分数越高、尺寸越小，越能保证高温条件下晶粒不发生粗化。

析出相尺寸往往随应用温度升高而增大，而NiAl/Ni2AlTi等析出相在高温下的稳定性表明，开发具有良好热稳定性的纳米粒子是可行的。众所周知，析出相粗化的动力学受许多因素影响，如体积分数、析出相/基体失配引起的弹性应变、析出相之间的弹性相互作用等。描述界面附近平衡浓度与界面曲率半径关系的Gibbs-Thomson方程是研究析出相Ostwald熟化的热力学基础，即[123]：

Cr=Ceexp2γΩRTr≈Ce1+2γΩRTr

式中，Cr 为第二相颗粒半径为r时溶质在基体中的平衡浓度，Ce为第二相颗粒半径为无限大时溶质在基体中的平衡浓度，Ω为溶质原子的物质的量，R为摩尔气体常数，T为热力学温度。可见，小颗粒周围基体的溶质浓度高于大颗粒周围基体的溶质浓度。因此，溶质原子将从小颗粒周围向大颗粒附近扩散，这种扩散将破坏颗粒周围溶质浓度的平衡，导致小颗粒不断地溶解收缩并最终消失，而大颗粒不断地长大。

Lifshitz和Slyozov[124]明确了扩散控制条件下的t1/3 (t为时间)规律，相关理论被称为Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner (LSW)理论。在由溶质扩散控制、在基体中均匀沉淀的析出相熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律可表示为：

r¯t=r¯01+4CDHt9r¯031/3≈8σzVP2Dc09VBcpRT1/3∙t1/3

式中，Cmn 为与r和t无关的常数(下标m = D、R，其中，D表示由扩散控制，R表示由界面反应控制；下标n = H、g、d，其中，H表示在基体中熟化，g表示在晶界上发生熟化，d表示在位错线上熟化)，r¯t为随时间变化的析出相平均尺寸，r¯0为析出相的初始平均尺寸，D为溶质体扩散系数，VB 为溶质元素B的摩尔体积，σz为析出相与基体之间的比界面能，VP为析出相的摩尔体积，c0为控制性元素在析出相中的初始摩尔浓度，cp为控制性元素在析出相中的平衡摩尔浓度。

同时，Wagner[125]总结了反应控制条件下的t1/2粗化规律，在由界面反应控制、在基体中均匀沉淀的球形析出相的熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律为：

r¯t=r¯01+32CRHt81r¯021/2≈89∙σzVP2c0kVBcpRT1/2∙t1/2

式中，k表示界面反应速率常数。

Speight[126]和Kirchner[127]考虑了晶界上沉淀的第二相颗粒的Ostwald熟化问题，得到了t1/4规律，在由溶质扩散控制、在晶界上均匀沉淀的球形析出相的熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律为：

r¯t=r¯01+1.033820294×27CDgt64r¯041/4≈
0.833184σzVP2Dgc0pδVBcpRT1/4∙t1/4

式中，δ为晶界厚度，p为溶质在晶界的偏聚因子，Dg为沿晶界扩散系数。

Ardell[128]则分析了位错晶界(即小角度晶界)上沉淀的第二相颗粒的Ostwald熟化问题，并得到了t1/4~t1/5规律。在由溶质扩散控制、位错线上均匀沉淀的球形析出相的熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律为：

r¯t=r¯01+1.045681035×256CDdt625r¯051/5≈
0.874724356σzVP2Ddc0qr02VBcpRT1/5∙t1/5

式中，Dd为沿位错扩散系数，q为溶质在位错线上的偏聚因子，r0为析出相的初始尺寸。

雍崎龙[113]在Ostwald熟化过程的普适微分方程及其解析解方面进行了深入工作，使相关理论系统化。同时，还由此明确得到界面反应控制条件下，晶界或位错线在第二相颗粒熟化过程的t1/3或t1/4规律。在由界面反应控制、晶界上均匀沉淀的球形析出相的熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律为：

r¯t=r¯01+4CRgt9r¯031/3≈4σzVP2c0kpδ9VBcpRT1/3∙t1/3

在由界面反应控制、在位错上均匀沉淀的球形析出相的熟化过程中，其平均尺寸随时间的变化规律为：

r¯t=r¯01+1.033820294×27CDdt64r¯041/4≈
0.833184σzVP2c0qkr02VBcpRT1/4∙t1/4

当前，关于析出相高温熟化行为的研究多集中于两相析出相。而随着超高强度钢性能的不断突破，钢中合金元素及析出相的种类更加复杂，其Ostwald熟化行为的控制因素与传统合金有所不同，有待于深入研究。而借助相场、分子动力学等计算材料学方法，模拟第二相体积分数对Ostwald熟化行为的具体影响，有助于更好地理解其影响机制。

4 结论与展望

超高强度钢作为关键结构材料，其强度与韧性的协同提升始终是材料科学与工程领域的研究重点。本文系统梳理了传统与新型超高强度钢的发展历程、析出相调控策略及强化机理，得出以下主要结论。

(1) 传统超高强度钢在特定应用场景下表现出优异的性能，但仍普遍存在合金成本高、工艺复杂及焊接性与耐腐蚀性能不足等问题，制约其更广泛的应用。

(2) 新型超高强度钢通过复合纳米析出相与多相复合组织的设计，实现了强度-韧性的协同突破。尤其是“hybrid”设计理念的提出，打破了传统钢种界限，为开发低成本、高性能、易焊接的“全能型”超高强度钢提供了新思路。

(3) 析出相调控是提升性能的核心手段。通过优化成分与工艺，可实现高密度、高共格纳米析出相的均匀分布，显著增强析出强化效果。复合析出体系展现出优于单一析出相的强化潜力，但也对成分波动更为敏感，工艺窗口较窄。

(4) 超高强度钢的性能源于基体组织、析出相与残余奥氏体等多因素的协同作用。高温下析出相的粗化与基体回复是导致材料性能退化的主要原因，提升其热稳定性是未来研究的重点。

在“双碳”目标与高端装备升级的驱动下，未来超高强度钢的研究应进一步聚焦多学科、多技术的交叉融合，实现从“经验设计”到“理性设计”、从“均质材料”到“定制化构件”的跨越。具体发展方向如下。

(1) 多层次微观结构协同设计。进一步融合纳米析出相、残余奥氏体、高位错密度马氏体等结构，构建多尺度、多相复合的层次化组织，通过相变诱导塑性、孪晶诱导塑性等多重韧化机制，实现强度与塑性的最优匹配。

(2) 高温组织稳定性与性能持久性提升。通过合金设计与工艺优化，抑制析出相的Ostwald熟化与基体位错回复，开发适用于400~600 ℃高温环境的高强韧耐热超高强度钢。

(3) 绿色低碳合金设计新范式实践。推动“素化”“低密度化”及“hybrid”等新理念的实践，通过多组元协同替代、轻量化元素添加及复合强化机制融合，降低对Ni、Co、Mo等贵金属的依赖，实现材料性能、成本和C足迹的综合优化。

(4) 智能化研发与先进制造技术的深度融合。以材料基因组工程与高通量计算为核心，结合相场模拟、机器学习算法等，实现新材料成分与工艺窗口的快速虚拟筛选与优化。通过人工智能与数据驱动，对海量实验与服役数据进行分析，揭示组织与性能间的隐含关联。在此基础上，增材制造技术将作为理想的高效物理载体，可直接将计算设计的成分与微观结构在复杂构件中实现空间定制，并通过原位热循环控制与后处理，优化纳米析出相的析出行为与分布。

总之，超高强度钢正从传统的单一强化机制向多相、多机制协同强化的方向发展。未来通过跨尺度组织调控、绿色合金设计、智能化研发手段与先进制造技术的深度融合，有望实现新一代超高强度钢在综合性能、成本控制、制备效率和可持续性方面的全面突破，为高端装备的轻量化、长寿命和可靠性提供关键材料支撑。

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[J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2015, 51: 904

DOI      [本文引用: 7]

Maraging steels are leading members of the ultra-high strength steel family due to a combination of two solid state reactions: martensitic transformation and subsequent ageing. These steels can be hardened by the precipitation of refined Ni3(Ti, Mo) intermetallic particles. They have been widely used in the military and aerospace applications such as solid rocket motor cases and submarine shells due to their high strength and toughness. The T250 maraging steel has used Ti as one of the primary strengthening elements to replace Co, which decreases the cost of maraging steels. Its properties are comparable to the standard Co-bearing grades in the 1.4~2.1 GPa strength levels. It possesses good weldability without porosity in the weld and other weld defects. However, the combination of strength and toughness of welded joints is the main problem which has not been solved well via different welding methods so far. In this work, T250 maraging steel plate with 2 mm thickness was hybrid-treated with laser welding and aging treatment. The strength and toughness of welded joints aged before and after welding were investigated. The microstructures of parent metals and welded joints were observed with OM and SEM. Chemical compositions in parent metals and weld zones were analyzed with EPMA. The tensile strength and static toughness were acquired with the auxiliary device of Gleeble machine and could represent strength and toughness of the welded joints. The results show that the tensile strength and static toughness of the welded joint aged before welding are 62% and 28% that of the aged parent metal, respectively. However, the tensile strength and static toughness of the welded joint aged after welding reach 98% and 71% that of the aged parent metal, respectively. The weld metal is the key zone to influence the strength and toughness of the welded joints. Ni3(Ti, Mo) precipitates in the weld metal are the intrinsic reason resulting in that the strength and toughness of the welded joint aged after welding are superior to that of the welded joint aged before welding. Ni3(Ti, Mo) precipitates are beneficial to the strength and static toughness in the elastic deformation stage, and it has a dual effect on the static toughness in the plastic deformation stage of the welded joints. The reverted austenite has a negligible effect on the strength and static toughness in the elastic deformation stage, while it is detrimental to the static toughness in the plastic deformation stage of the welded joints.

李 坤, 单际国, 王春旭 等.

T250马氏体时效钢激光焊接-时效处理接头的强韧性

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Research and application progress in ultra-high strength stainless steel

[J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2020, 56: 549

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刘振宝, 梁剑雄, 苏 杰 等.

高强度不锈钢的研究及发展现状

[J]. 金属学报, 2020, 56: 549

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高强度不锈钢作为强度、韧性及服役安全性俱佳的金属结构材料，广泛应用于航空、航天及海洋工程等领域。本文系统地梳理了高强度不锈钢的研究及发展历程，重点阐述了以析出强化和奥氏体韧化为代表的强韧化机理，及以氢致开裂和H原子扩散富集为主要因素的应力腐蚀及氢脆敏感性问题。认为高强度不锈钢的未来发展将重点关注计算模拟设计，多类型、高共格度析出相复合强化，高机械稳定性的薄膜状奥氏体韧化，综合显微组织和服役环境加深对应力腐蚀及氢脆机理的理解，从而为设计兼备超高强韧性、优良综合服役性能的高强不锈钢提供实际的理论依据。

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Maraging steel is a kind of ultra-high-strength steel which has non-carbon or low-carbon iron-nickel martensite matrix and is age-hardened via intermetallic compound. The course of development of maraging steel was reviewed by discussing each of alloying elements of this material, and its alloying characteristics was discussed through combining the performance characteristics of maraging steel. Its application status was introduced. Besides, the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of maraging steel was expatiated indetailedly, and the future development prospect of this material was also discussed.

尹 航, 李金许, 宿彦京 等.

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Ultrastrong steel strengthened by multiple shearable nanostructures

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Precipitation of multiple strong nanoprecipitates is crucial for the development of ultrahigh-strength structural materials with a strength of 2.5 GPa or above. Nevertheless, the ductility usually loses rapidly with strength due to limited dislocation mobility and high cracking tendency if coarse non-deformable precipitates are employed. Herein, we report a 2.5 GPa maraging steel strengthened by an ultrahigh density of intermeshed shearable nanostructures consisting of Ni(Al, Fe) nanoprecipitates and Mo-rich (∼30 at.%) disordered clusters, both of which assume coherent interfaces. The fully coherent B2-Ni(Al, Fe) particles precipitate in an extremely fast fashion, effectively accelerating local aggregation of low-diffusivity Mo atoms and promoting the formation of Mo-rich clusters surrounding them. This elemental partition was found to be further enhanced by Co addition via depleting both residual Al and Mo within the matrix, leading to the formation of copious yet fine intermeshed nanostructures. During plastic deformation, the interlocked nanostructures not only enhance local cutting stress by combining long-range elastic and short-range chemically ordering effects but also improve dislocation activity and resist shear-induced plastic instability. The multiple shearable nanostructures endow decent ductility (> 6%) of the 2.5 GPa steel, suggesting a new paradigm for designing ultrastrong steels.

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A wide variety of industrial applications require materials with high strength and ductility. Unfortunately, the strategies for increasing material strength, such as processing to create line defects (dislocations), tend to decrease ductility. We developed a strategy to circumvent this in inexpensive, medium manganese steel. Cold rolling followed by low-temperature tempering developed steel with metastable austenite grains embedded in a highly dislocated martensite matrix. This deformed and partitioned (D and P) process produced dislocation hardening but retained high ductility, both through the glide of intensive mobile dislocations and by allowing us to control martensitic transformation. The D and P strategy should apply to any other alloy with deformation-induced martensitic transformation and provides a pathway for the development of high-strength, high-ductility materials.Copyright © 2017 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.

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纳米贝氏体钢残奥细化及其力学性能调控研究进展

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纳米贝氏体钢作为新型超高强度钢，因其具备良好的强塑性能匹配，吸引着广大专家学者研究其力学性能调控机制。本文介绍了纳米贝氏体钢中残留奥氏体的形态及其TRIP效应，概述了加速贝氏体转变的多种调控手段，如合金元素、等温贝氏体转变温度、奥氏体化温度以及预马氏体相变等，及其对残留奥氏体的尺寸、形状和体积分数的影响；同时对多步转变和其他一些细化残留奥氏体尺寸的方法做了介绍，力争为高强度纳米贝氏体钢的研发提供理论支持。

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Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of 18Ni300 maraging steel fabricated by selective laser melting

[J]. Acta Metall. Sin., 2025, 61: 1515

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Recently, 18Ni300 maraging steel has been widely used for preparing conformal cooling molds via additive manufacturing. The requirements pertaining to the service life of these molds have become more stringent, but whether the microstructures and properties of these molds can meet the service requirements largely depends on the applied heat treatment. This paper studies the effects of two typical heat treatment processes—direct aging and solution aging—on the microstructure and tensile properties of 18Ni300 maraging steel fabricated via selective laser melting. In all prepared specimens, austenite was present and the classical Nishiyama-Wassermann orientation relationship was observed between austenite and the martensitic matrix. Elements in the as-prepared samples were evenly distributed, with obvious molten-pool and cell structures composed mainly of dislocation entanglements. In addition, a small number of long austenite strips appeared at the grain boundaries. Direct aging partially dissolved the cell and molten-pool structures and enriched Ni at some grain boundaries. The direct-aging sample exhibited relatively high austenite content. Meanwhile, the solution-aging sample exhibited a nearly complete martensite structure with evenly distributed elements. In addition, cell and molten-pool structures were almost completely removed and Ni was enriched at some grain boundaries. Further, trace amounts of austenite remained. Austenite retained in the as-prepared samples showed no obvious chemical composition segregation. Austenite present in the direct-aging and solution-aging samples was Ni enriched and confirmed to be of the reverted type. Ni at certain grain boundaries and cell walls was enriched due to cell-wall dissolution during the direct- and solution-aging treatments. Ni enrichment promoted the formation and stability of reverted austenite. Numerous round rod-shaped Ni3Ti intermetallic compounds precipitated from the matrix after both the treatments, greatly increasing the yield strength from (1090 ± 1.5) MPa of the untreated sample to (1854 ± 13.2) MPa and (2059 ± 9.9) MPa of the direct-aging and solution-aging samples, respectively. The strength of the as-prepared samples was mainly contributed by austenite-to-martensitic phase transformation and solid-solution strengthening, while those of the direct- and solution-aging samples were mainly contributed by austenite-to-martensitic phase transformation, solid-solution strengthening, and precipitation strengthening. Moreover, the solution-aging samples exhibited greater precipitation strengthening than the direct-aging samples, mainly owing to the high density and large length-diameter ratio of their precipitates.

吴文伟, 向 超, 张 涛 等.

热处理工艺对选区激光熔化成型18Ni300马氏体时效钢微观组织及力学性能的影响

[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61: 1515

DOI      [本文引用: 1]

近年来，18Ni300马氏体时效钢在增材制造随形冷却模具中得到广泛应用，而热处理工艺是决定打印件组织和性能否满足服役要求的重要因素。本工作研究了直接时效和固溶时效2种典型热处理工艺对选区激光熔化成型18Ni300马氏体时效钢微观组织和力学性能的影响。结果表明，打印态、直接时效态和固溶时效态试样中均存在奥氏体，且与马氏体基体存在经典Nishiyama-Wassermann取向关系。打印态试样元素分布均匀，存在明显的熔池结构和胞状组织，胞状组织由位错缠结形成，在晶界处存在少量长条状的奥氏体。直接时效处理后胞状组织和熔池结构发生部分溶解，Ni在部分晶界和胞壁处富集，具有较高含量的奥氏体。固溶时效处理后获得近全马氏体组织，元素分布均匀，胞状组织和熔池结构基本消失，Ni在部分晶界处富集，存在微量奥氏体。打印态试样的奥氏体无明显化学成分偏析，为残余奥氏体；而直接时效态和固溶时效态试样的奥氏体存在Ni富集，为逆转奥氏体。直接时效和固溶时效处理使Ni在部分晶界和胞壁处富集，Ni富集促进逆转奥氏体生成并使其稳定存在。打印态试样的屈服强度为(1090 ± 1.5) MPa，直接时效和固溶时效处理后基体析出大量棒状η-Ni<sub>3</sub>Ti金属间化合物，强度提升，其中，直接时效处理后屈服强度可达(1854 ± 13.2) MPa，固溶时效处理后屈服强度可达(2059 ± 9.9) MPa。打印态试样的强度主要由马氏体相变强化和固溶强化贡献，而直接时效态和固溶时效态试样的强度主要由马氏体相变强化、固溶强化和析出强化贡献，且固溶时效态试样具有更强的析出强化效果，这主要是由于固溶时效态试样的析出相具有更高的密度和长径比。

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The precipitation of nanoparticles plays a key role in determining the properties of many structural materials, and the understanding of their formation and stabilization mechanisms has been a long standing interest in the material field. However, the critical issues involving the group precipitation of various nanoparticles and their cooperative hardening mechanism remain elusive in the newly discovered Fe-based alloys with nanostructures. Here we quantitatively elucidate the nucleation mechanism, evolution kinetics and hardening effects of the group-precipitated nanoparticles in the Fe-Cu-Ni-Al-based alloys by atom probe tomography together with both first-principles and thermodynamic calculations. Our results provide the compelling evidence for two interesting but complex group precipitation pathways of nanoparticles, i.e., the Cu-rich and NiAl-based precipitations. The co-existence of the two precipitation pathways plays a key role in age hardening kinetics and ultimately enhances the hardening response, as compared to the single particle type of strengthening, therefore providing an effective new approach for strengthening materials for structural applications.

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Mechanically strong and ductile load-carrying materials are needed in all sectors, from transportation to lightweight design to safe infrastructure. Yet, a grand challenge is to unify both features in one material. We show that a plain medium-manganese steel can be processed to have a tensile strength >2.2 gigapascals at a uniform elongation >20%. This requires a combination of multiple transversal forging, cryogenic treatment, and tempering steps. A hierarchical microstructure that consists of laminated and twofold topologically aligned martensite with finely dispersed retained austenite simultaneously activates multiple micromechanisms to strengthen and ductilize the material. The dislocation slip in the well-organized martensite and the gradual deformation-stimulated phase transformation synergistically produce the high ductility. Our nanostructure design strategy produces 2 gigapascal-strength and yet ductile steels that have attractive composition and the potential to be produced at large industrial scales.

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Materials are typically ductile at higher temperatures and become brittle at lower temperatures. In contrast to the typical ductile-to-brittle transition behavior of body-centered cubic (bcc) steels, we observed an inverse temperature dependence of toughness in an ultrahigh-strength bcc steel with an ultrafine elongated ferrite grain structure that was processed by a thermomechanical treatment without the addition of a large amount of an alloying element. The enhanced toughness is attributed to a delamination that was a result of crack branching on the aligned {100} cleavage planes in the bundles of the ultrafine elongated ferrite grains strengthened by nanometer-sized carbides. In the temperature range from 60 degrees to -60 degrees C, the yield strength was greater, leading to the enhancement of the toughness.

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DOI     

The modified Williamson-Hall method, which has been widely used to calculate dislocation densities of high-strength steels and other structural alloys, is re-examined in this work, and is further applied to calculate the dislocation density of a deformed twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel by using its neutron diffraction patterns and synchrotron X-ray diffraction patterns. This paper aims not only to promote the proper use of the method but also to shed light on its underlying pre-requisites and assumptions, and is thus expected to help avoid any errors during its usage.

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基于中子衍射和同步辐射X射线衍射的TWIP钢位错密度计算方法

[J]. 金属学报, 2020, 56: 487

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本文详细梳理并介绍了被广泛应用于高强钢及其它结构金属材料位错密度计算的修正Williamson-Hall法，并结合中子衍射和同步辐射X射线衍射实验结果，以一种孪生诱发塑性(TWIP)钢为例，计算其在变形后的位错密度演化。本文详细介绍如何正确使用该方法以及如何避免常见的一些错误，并介绍其背后的原理及假设。

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Precipitates are crucial for crafting mechanically strong metallic materials. In this work, we report the dislocation cutting of B2 (ordered body-centered cubic) nanoprecipitates, typically considered nonshearable intermetallics, in a lightweight compositionally complex steel during cryogenic tensile loading. Shearing is enabled by the high strength level for dislocation glide within the austenitic matrix, attributed to the substantial strengthening from subnanoscale local chemical ordering zones and the pronounced solid solution strengthening from the multiprincipal elements in the matrix. This mechanism not only harnesses the intense strengthening and strain hardening provided by otherwise impenetrable brittle nanoprecipitates but also introduces ductility through their sequential shearing with ongoing deformation. Our steel thus showcases ultrahigh cryogenic tensile strength up to 2 gigapascal at a remarkable tensile elongation of 34%. This study reveals a new strategy for designing high-performance structural materials.

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Recently, 2 GPa grade ultra-high strength steel has emerged as a potential candidate material for torsional axles. Nevertheless, studies focusing on the correlation between the microstructure and mechanical properties are scarce. To address this, the current study investigates the impact of austenitizing temperature on the microstructure, tensile mechanical properties, and static torsional properties of 2 GPa grade ultra-high strength steel used in torsion axles. Various techniques including SEM, EBSD, AES, TEM, uniaxial tension, and static torsion are employed. During the austenitizing process, the lamellar cementite in the initial microstructure (composed of pearlite and a minimal amount of ferrite) first spheroidized and then dissolved. This spheroidization process is primarily dominated by discontinuity-assisted spheroidization, with minimal contributions from termination-migration-assisted spheroidization. With increasing austenitizing temperature, the cementite gradually transforms from (Fe, Cr, V)3C to Fe3C, eventually completely dissolving (at the austenitizing temperature of 950 oC). Moreover, the precipitation temperature range of vanadium carbide is consistent with the temperature range of undissolved cementite. Additionally, austenitizing at 850 oC and tempering at 220 oC results in better tensile properties, including a yield strength of 1580 MPa, tensile strength of 2062 MPa, uniform elongation of 8.4%, and total elongation of approximately 12.7%. These improvements are attributed to the precipitation strengthening enabled by cementite and vanadium carbide and the fine grain strengthening provided by fine martensite block sizes. The static torsion test results show that when the austenitizing temperature is 800 and 850 oC, the sample shows the best shear moduli and torsional yield strength due to the increased cementite and vanadium carbide contents, along with fine martensite block sizes. With increasing austenitizing temperature, the shear plastic deformation zone expands, and the predominant fracture mechanism changes from shear fracture to shear ductile fracture, resulting in higher torsional strengths.

张天宇, 张 鹏, 肖 娜 等.

奥氏体化温度对2 GPa超高强钢显微组织和力学性能的影响

[J]. 金属学报, 2025, 61: 1353

DOI      [本文引用: 1]

2 GPa级超高强度钢已成为扭力轴的候选材料之一。然而，关于其显微组织与力学性能之间关系的研究相对较少。本工作采用SEM、EBSD、AES、TEM、单轴拉伸和静态扭转等方法研究了奥氏体化温度对扭力轴用2 GPa超高强钢的显微组织、拉伸力学性能和静态扭转性能的影响。结果表明，在奥氏体化过程中，初始组织(珠光体和少量铁素体组成)中片层状合金渗碳体先球化后溶解，其球化机制主要以非连续辅助机制为主，包含少量的边缘迁移机制。随着奥氏体化温度的升高，渗碳体逐渐由(Fe, Cr, V)<sub>3</sub>C合金渗碳体转变为Fe<sub>3</sub>C渗碳体，直至渗碳体完全溶解(奥氏体化温度为950 ℃时)，并且VC的析出温度区间与渗碳体未溶解的温度区间相一致。奥氏体化温度为850 ℃时实验用钢获得了较优的拉伸力学性能，屈服强度、抗拉强度、均匀延伸率和总延伸率分别为1580 MPa、2062 MPa、8.4%和12.7%，这源于显微组织中渗碳体和VC提供的析出强化，以及细小的马氏体板条提供的细晶强化。静态扭转实验结果表明，当奥氏体化温度为800和850 ℃时，由于含有更多渗碳体和VC以及细小的马氏体板条，试样表现出更高的剪切模量和扭转屈服强度。随奥氏体化温度升高，剪切塑性变形区增加，断裂主导机制由剪切断裂转变为剪切韧性断裂，从而表现出更高的抗扭强度。

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