Process of Prefabricated Vortex Flow-Based Friction Stir Welding for Low Carbon Steel

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00222

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (1): 217-234 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00222

Research paper

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Process of Prefabricated Vortex Flow-Based Friction Stir Welding for Low Carbon Steel

WANG Qiyong¹, LI Xiaobo¹, LIU Xiaochao¹^,²(

), WANG Xincheng¹^,², ZHANG Tairui¹, NI Zhonghua¹^,², CHEN Biao³

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
2 Advanced Ocean Institute of Southeast University Nantong, Nantong 226010, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China

Cite this article:

WANG Qiyong, LI Xiaobo, LIU Xiaochao, WANG Xincheng, ZHANG Tairui, NI Zhonghua, CHEN Biao. Process of Prefabricated Vortex Flow-Based Friction Stir Welding for Low Carbon Steel. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(1): 217-234.

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Abstract

At present, the demand for hard-to-weld steels, such as high-nitrogen stainless steel, oxide-dispersion-strengthened steel, and twinning-induced plasticity steel, in the high-end equipment manufacturing industry has gradually increased. Low-cost and reliable joining is a prerequisite for meeting the diverse application requirements of these steels. Conventional fusion welding of hard-to-weld steels often produces metallurgical defects, including pores and cracks. In contrast, friction stir welding (FSW), a solid-state process performed entirely below the material's melting point, effectively avoids such defects. Moreover, its combined thermal-mechanical action promotes the formation of high-performance joints. However, the high temperatures and contact stresses associated with FSW of hard-to-weld steels can lead to tool wear and fracture. To address this limitation, this study proposes a novel prefabricated vortex flow-based FSW (PF-VFSW) process. A systematic investigation was conducted using 3-mm-thick Q195 steel to evaluate the effects of holder material, rotational speed, welding speed, and tool tilt angle on the joint's macroscopic morphology, microstructure, and mechanical properties. For a WC-Co holder with 0° tilt, the optimal rotation and welding speeds were 500 r/min and 20 mm/min. However, kissing-bond defects were observed at the bottom of the joint, with oxide distribution and unbonded regions increasing with distance from the top of the joint. Using a W-Re holder with a 1° tilt and adjusted process parameters eliminated these defects, with the optimal rotation and welding speeds being 300 r/min and 20 mm/min. Severe plastic deformation in the stir zone induced dynamic recovery and both continuous and discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, reducing the recrystallization fraction compared to the base material. The proportion of low-angle grain boundaries increased markedly, accompanied by pronounced grain refinement. The minimum average grain size in the stir zone was 3.8 μm, representing an 80.51% reduction relative to the base material. The microhardnesses of joints produced with WC-Co and W-Re holders increased by 6.44% and 18.90%, respectively, compared to the base material. Tensile strength improved by 1.74% to 317.26 MPa and 5.91% to 330.25 MPa, respectively, achieving a joint efficiency of 100% in terms of tensile strength relative to the base material. These results demonstrate that PF-VFSW is an effective, low-cost method for producing high-quality joints in Q195 low-carbon steel.

Key words: friction stir welding Q195 steel process parameter microstructure mechanical property prefabricated vortex

Received: 08 August 2025

ZTFLH:

TG456

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(52275316);Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing in NPU(SKLSP202509);Zhishan Young Scholar Program of Southeast University(2242025RCB0002);Research Fund for Advanced Ocean Institute of Southeast University Nantong(KP202409)

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	WANG Qiyong
	LI Xiaobo
	LIU Xiaochao
	WANG Xincheng
	ZHANG Tairui
	NI Zhonghua
	CHEN Biao

URL:

https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00222 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I1/217

Fig.1 Schematics of prefabricated vortex flow-based friction stir welding (PF-VFSW) process (a), sampling positions (b), and sample dimensions (c) (unit: mm. RS—retreading side, AS—advancing side, SZ—stirring zone)

Table 1 Properties for WC-Co and W-Re alloys^[25-29]

Table 2 Sample designations and corresponding holder materials and process parameters

Fig.2 Inverse pole figure (IPF) (a), {111} pole figure (b), and {111}112 texture standard pole figure (c) of annealed Q195 cold-rolled steel base metal (BM) (RD—rolling direction, TD—transverse direction, ND—normal direction)

Fig.3 Macroscopic morphologies of front (a-e) and back (a1-e1) sides of the weld in joints obtained using WC-Co holder under different rotation speeds and welding speeds (Black arrows in Figs.3a-c represent weld necking; F5, F10, F20, and F30 represent welding zones at welding speeds of 5, 10, 20, and 30 mm/min, respectively. The same below)
(a, a1) 300 r/min, 80 mm/min (b, b1) 300 r/min, 50 mm/min (c, c1) 350 r/min, 50 mm/min (d, d1) 500 r/min, 30 mm/min (e, e1) 500 r/min, 20 mm/min

Fig.4 Cross-sectional low (a-f) and high (g, h) magnified OM images of sample #4 (a-e, g) and sample #5 (f, h) under different welding speed intervals
(a) start position (b) 10 mm/min (c) 20 mm/min (d, g) 30 mm/min (e) end position (f, h) 20 mm/min

Fig.5 Low (a-c) and locally high (d-f) magnified SEM images of kissing bond regions at top (a, d), middle (b, e), and bottom (c, f) of the samples #5 (Dotted lines in Figs.5c and f represent boundaries of unbonded region)

Fig.6 Macroscopic morphologies of front (a, b) and back (a1, b1) sides of weld in joints, three dimensional morphologies of backside defects (c, d), and depth of defects along the direction shown in Fig.6c (e) and Fig.6d (f) of samples obtained using W-Re holder under different rotation speeds and tilt angles
(a, a1, c, e) 500 r/min, 20 mm/min, 0° (b, b1, d, f) 500 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1°

Fig.7 Macroscopic morphologies of front (a, b) and back (a1, b1) sides of the weld in joints obtained using W-Re holder under different parameters
(a, a1) 700 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1° (b, b1) 300 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1°

Fig.8 Cross-sectional low (a-d) and locally high (e, f) magnified OM images of joints obtained using W-Re holder under different parameters
(a) 500 r/min, 20 mm/min, 0° (b, e) 500 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1° (c, f) 700 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1° (d) 300 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1°

Fig.9 SEM images of joints at different locations obtained using WC-Co holder under optimal parameter (500 r/min, 20 mm/min, 0°) (a-c) and W-Re holder under optimal parameter (300 r/min, 20 mm/min, 1°) (d-f)
(a, d) BM (b, e) SZ (c, f) thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)

Fig.10 IPFs (a-h) and {101} and {111} pole figures (PFs) (i-l) of samples prepared by WC-Co (a-d, i, j) and W-Re (e-h, k, l) holders under corresponding optimal parameters (SZ-U—upper region of SZ, SZ-L—lower region of SZ, SPN—shear plane normal, SD—shear direction, HAZ—heat-affected zone, WD—weld direction)
(a, e) TMAZ on the AS (b, f, i, k) SZ-U (c, g, j, l) SZ-L (d, h) TMAZ on the RS

Table 3 Average grain sizes, low-angle grain boundary (LAGB) fraction, and geometrically necessary dislocations (ρ^GND) for different samples

Fig.11 Volume fractions of recrystallized grains (a) and kernel average misorientation (KAM) distributions (b) of BM and samples prepared by WC-Co and W-Re holders under correspon-ding optimal parameters

Fig.12 Microhardness contour maps (a, b) and distribu-tion profiles along line 1 and line 2 (c) of the cross-section of joints prepared by different holders under corresponding optimal parameters
(a) WC-Co holder (b) W-Re holder

Fig.13 Engineering stress-strain curves (a) and tensile properties (b) of BM samples and samples obtained using WC-Co and W-Re holders under optimal parameters (Insets in Fig.13a are macroscopic morphologies of the front (left) and back (right) sides of samples after tensile testing, with red arrows in the right image denoting the failure locations. UTS—ultimate tensile strength, EL—elongation)

Table 4 Tensile properties of BM mini samples and upper and lower parts of SZ of mini samples obtained using WC-Co and W-Re holders under optimal parameters

Fig.14 Low (a) and high (b, c) magnified SEM images showing typical fracture morphologies of samples obtained using WC-Co holder under optimal parameters (Insets in Figs.14b and c are corresponding high magnified views)

Fig.15 Low (a) and high (b) magnified SEM images showing typical fracture morphologies of samples obtained using W-Re holder under optimal parameters (Insets in Fig.15b is corresponding high magnified view. Dotted lines in Fig.15a represents boundaries of the central fracture region)

Fig.16 Schematics of PF-VFSW processes
(a) rotating stage (b) pressuring stage (c) welding stage

Fig.17 Schematics of fracture mechanisms of samples obtained using WC-Co (a) and W-Re (b) holders under optimal parameters (F_BM—load on the BM region, F_SZ—load on the SZ, S_BM—cross-sectional area of the BM region, S_SZ—cross-sectional area of the SZ, L_BM—initial tensile test gauge length of the BM region, L_BMʹ—critical gauge length of the BM region before fracture, L_SZ—initial tensile test gauge length of the SZ, L_SZʹ—critical gauge length of the SZ before fracture)

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