增材制造钛合金等效弹性张量的细观力学建模与实验研究
Mesomechanical Modeling and Experimental Study of Effective Elastic Tensors in Additively Manufactured Titanium Alloys
通讯作者: 李雄兵,lixb213@csu.edu.cn,主要从事无损检测与评价的研究
责任编辑: 肖素红
收稿日期: 2023-11-14 修回日期: 2024-06-04
| 基金资助: |
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Corresponding authors: LI Xiongbing, professor, Tel:
Received: 2023-11-14 Revised: 2024-06-04
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作者简介 About authors
谭若涵,女,1993年生,博士
孔隙和织构均为增材制造(AM)多晶体金属的重要特征,但已有的细观力学模型无法研究2者的耦合作用对材料力学性能的影响机理。因此,本工作构建了双相金属材料的改进Mori-Tanaka (modified Mori-Tanaka,MMT)模型,在此基础上预测AM Ti-6Al-4V合金的等效弹性张量,进而探究AM 多晶体材料的微观结构对材料宏观力学性能的影响规律。本模型结合了传统MT模型和微分法,可综合分析各向异性多晶体织构和孔隙2个耦合因素与宏观力学性能的内在联系。通过有损和无损实验,研究了2种孔隙率和织构的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的相变行为、晶粒取向分布函数、孔隙率和孔隙形貌特征。为验证理论预测的准确性,采用稀疏法与所建立模型进行对比分析;同时进行拉伸实验和超声实验,基于MMT模型得到的Young's模量与拉伸实验结果的平均绝对百分比误差(MAPE)分别为0.87%和2.51%,基于MMT模型得到的等效弹性刚度张量(
关键词:
Additively manufactured (AM) Ti-6Al-4V alloys are known for their lightweight and superior mechanical properties and are increasingly being favored in the aerospace, energy, and biomedical industries. Among the available AM technologies, selective laser melting (SLM) stands out for its ability to fabricate complex-shaped Ti-6Al-4V efficiently and economically through near-net-shape manufacturing. Despite their advantages, SLM-produced parts often suffer from mechanical anisotropy and contain microdefects such as pores, cracks, and residual stresses, restricting their wider application. Addressing these issues requires a thorough understanding of the effects of texture and porosity on the mechanical properties of AM materials, which is necessary for developing components that comply with strict industry standards. Previous research has predominantly focused on studying the impact of texture or porosity on material properties, overlooking the interplay between these two critical factors. This work introduces an advanced modified Mori-Tanaka (MMT) model that simultaneously considers both texture and porosity in dual-phase AM Ti-6Al-4V alloys. This model enhances the traditional Mori-Tanaka approach by integrating it with the differential method, facilitating a nuanced analysis of how texture and porosity jointly influence the mechanical behavior of polycrystals. For model development, phase transitions and grain orientations are characterized using EBSD, whereas the 3D Gaussian distribution function describes the texture distribution within the polycrystal. Micro/nano computed tomography (CT) plays a pivotal role in determining the volume fraction and morphology of pores, providing crucial data for the model. These parameters were incorporated into the mesomechanical model to analyze the effective elastic stiffness tensor and Young's modulus, quantifying their collective impact on the alloy's mechanical properties. To validate the model, tensile and ultrasonic tests are conducted for two samples with different porosities and textures and compared their outcomes to evaluate the material's mechanical behavior, which exhibits characteristics of transverse isotropy. The comparison highlights the MMT model's superior precision, especially at higher porosity levels, with mean absolute percentage errors (MAPE) between Young's modulus obtained from the MMT model and the tensile test for two samples were 0.87% and 2.51%, respectively. Similarly, the MAPE between the effective elastic stiffness tensor derived from the MMT model and the ultrasonic test were 9.47% and 4.45%, respectively. These findings underscore the model's effectiveness in predicting material properties and its potential as a robust tool for exploring the interactions between microstructural elements and macroscopic mechanical properties of AM polycrystalline materials.
Keywords:
本文引用格式
谭若涵, 宋永锋, 陈超, 李丹, 成庶, 李雄兵.
TAN Ruohan, SONG Yongfeng, CHEN Chao, LI Dan, CHENG Shu, LI Xiongbing.
增材制造(additively manufactured,AM) Ti-6Al-4V合金密度低且力学性能优异,广泛应用于航空航天、能源和生物医疗等领域,尤其选区激光熔化(selective laser melting,SLM)工艺具有近净形状生产、高材料利用率和低成本等优点,特别适合制造复杂形状的Ti-6Al-4V零件[1,2]。然而,SLM Ti-6Al-4V零件不可避免地会出现织构及微观缺陷(如孔隙、裂缝、残余应力等)。织构会造成力学性能各向异性,微观缺陷降低材料力学性能,从而在一定程度上限制了其应用[3,4]。例如,Liu等[5]发现钛合金中由α晶粒聚集体形成的局部强织构将明显降低钛合金的疲劳性能;任永明等[6]和Cheng等[7]的研究分别表明了微观孔隙对AM Ti-6Al-4V合金疲劳性能和Young's模量的影响显著。为了设计和生产满足工业需求的AM Ti-6Al-4V零件,有必要建立细观力学性能模型,研究织构和孔隙2个耦合因素对材料力学性能的作用机理。
众多学者已单独针对织构或孔隙问题,开展了材料力学性能的细观力学建模研究。一方面,对于仅含织构的多晶体材料,均匀化模型可计算代表性体积单元(representative volume element,RVE)的等效弹性刚度张量( Ceff)。目前,常用的均匀化模型有Voigt模型、Reuss模型和Hill模型等,其中晶粒的取向分布函数(orientation distribution function,ODF)是这些模型实现均匀化的关键所在。Zhao等[8]和Man等[9]在Wigner-D基函数下展开ODF,得到织构系数,计算结果表明以此来表征晶粒取向,可以较为准确地得到 Ceff,但是算法复杂度高、计算耗时长。因此,一些学者采用近似的ODF来表征织构。例如Sha[10]和Li等[11]采用3D Gaussian形分布函数对ODF进行近似,通过与Euler角的半峰全宽(full width half maximum,FWHM)相关的参数来描述织构,结果显示虽损失了部分计算精度,但可显著提升计算效率。
另一方面,对于仅含孔隙的材料,Park等[12]通过微纳CT得到孔隙信息,并以此作为Mori-Tanaka (MT)模型的输入,构建了微观孔隙与 Ceff的细观力学模型,计算结果与有限元方法的计算结果吻合良好。Giraud等[13]研究了岩石的MT模型,通过椭球形夹杂的Eshelby张量推导了RVE的 Ceff,揭示了孔隙对Young's模量的影响规律,且该模型对高孔隙率的情况仍然适用。严寒冰[14]基于MT模型预测了含空心球复合泡沫塑料的有效模量,预测结果与实验结果一致性良好。可见,通过建立MT模型,可有效反映含孔隙材料的微观结构对宏观性能的影响机理。然而,增材制造金属材料属于多晶体,基体的各向异性是由织构决定的,这增加了使用已有MT模型计算 Ceff的难度[15~17]。
本文作者前期工作[18]针对含孔隙、织构的多晶体材料建立了改进的Mori-Tanaka (modified Mori-Tanaka,MMT)模型,并通过弹性动力学理论预测了超声波在此类介质中的传播速度。但该模型还没有得到实验验证,且AM Ti-6Al-4V合金为同时含立方结构晶体和六方结构晶体的双相材料,尚不明确与只含有立方结构晶体的单相材料有何差别。
本工作以双相材料AM Ti-6Al-4V合金为研究对象,建立含孔隙和织构的MMT模型,并通过多种实验验证模型的有效性。采用电子背散射衍射(electron backscatter diffraction,EBSD)实验研究晶粒的特征,通过3D Gaussian形分布函数描述多晶体的织构分布,作为均匀化的基础;利用微纳CT实验研究孔隙的分布特征及相关参数,得到MMT模型所需的孔隙参数;将织构和孔隙纳入材料的细观力学模型,分析AM Ti-6Al-4V的 Ceff和Young's模量,定量研究试块中织构和孔隙对材料宏观力学性能的影响。最后,通过拉伸实验和超声实验,分别得到AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的Young's模量和 Ceff,从力学角度和无损检测角度对该模型的有效性进行对比验证。
1 实验方法与模型
1.1 实验方法
图1
图1
增材制造(AM) Ti-6Al-4V合金(MMT)模型的流程图
Fig.1
Flowchart of modified Mori-Tanaka (MMT) model in additively manufactured (AM) Ti-6Al-4V alloy (w is any initial plane layer, Ceff is effective elastic stiffness tensor,
首先从试块A和B的XY平面及XZ平面分别切取尺寸为5 mm × 4 mm × 3 mm的试块,依次采用600、1000、1500、2000号砂纸对试块进行打磨,随后进行电解抛光,使用带有CCD相机的Nordly max3 EBSD仪,以步长0.4 μm对试块中500 μm × 500 μm的区域进行EBSD检测,研究试块的晶粒微观特征。另从试块A和B上分别切取尺寸为1.9 mm × 1.9 mm × 1.9 mm的CT试块,利用Xradia 520 3D X射线显微镜,以1.2 μm的分辨率进行微纳CT实验,观测材料中的孔隙相关信息。然后根据GB/T 228.1—2021,分别在试块A和B垂直于XY平面和XZ平面方向上,通过线切割切取长度为40 mm的哑铃形试块,如图1所示。使用Instron 3369力学试验机以2.0 mm/min的拉伸速率进行室温拉伸,由应力-应变曲线计算Young's模量。最后利用JSR DPR300超声发生接收器,采用V109 RB接触式纵波探头和V155 RB横波探头,无损测量试块的
1.2 MMT模型
针对含孔隙和织构的金属材料,采用3D Gaussian形分布函数对织构进行均匀化处理,同时结合微分法和传统MT法将孔隙分次添加进材料,获得材料的 Ceff。考虑双相时,根据EBSD观察可见每个试块的两相占比不同。此外,不同相的晶粒择优取向并不相同,导致两相的取向分布函数存在差异,且各相的单晶弹性常数也不相同。因此,对两相分别均匀化后,加权得到多晶体的等效弹性刚度张量( CMatrix)。首先不考虑孔隙的存在,借助物理简化模型——Voigt模型,计算多晶体基体体积(ΩMatrix)的 CMatrix。该模型假设多晶体中所有的晶粒具有相同的变形,因此其体积平均应力(
式中,dg = sinθdφdθd
表1 Ti-6Al-4V合金的单晶弹性常数(c(r))[19] (GPa)
Table 1
| Phase | c11 | c12 | c13 | c33 | c44 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| α | 170 | 92 | 70 | 192 | 52 |
| β | 138 | 108 | - | - | 51 |
Note:cij is the component of c(r)
F(φ, θ,
式中,右上角标m可由α相和β相分别代入,3个与FWHM相关的织构参数
式中,
式中,pm 为每个相在多晶体中所占比例,且pα + pβ= 1。假定孔隙的弹性刚度张量为 CPore = 0,含孔隙材料的 Ceff可通过下式迭代得到[21]:
式中, Ci 、ρi 和 Si 分别为第i次迭代的等效弹性刚度张量、瞬时孔隙率和Eshelby张量,n代表孔隙分组数(即迭代次数), I 是单位张量。初始输入是多晶体均匀化后的 CMatrix,即 C0 = CMatrix,而迭代完成后所得到的 Cn 为材料的 Ceff,即 Cn = Ceff。孔隙呈现短轴长度为a、长轴长度为b的椭球体形态,其长宽比(rPore = b / a) ≥ 1 (当rPore = 1时即为球形孔隙)。令v0和vi 分别为多晶体和不同长宽比孔隙的体积分数,且
MMT模型所需的关键参数包括了晶粒的织构参数以及各相所占比例,这些参数可借助EBSD实验获得的晶粒数据进行精确计算。同时,孔隙的体积分数和长宽比也是重要参量,可通过微纳CT实验进行有效测定。
2 实验结果
2.1 EBSD实验
表2 AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的EBSD分析结果
Table 2
| Sample | Phase | fp / % | qp | J |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | β | 0.86 | 13384 | 3.94 |
| α | 87.61 | 1368918 | 3.31 | |
| B | β | 1.66 | 25892 | 2.20 |
| α | 81.34 | 1270980 | 1.26 |
Note:fp—phase resolution, qp—phase counting, J—texture index
图2
图2
AM Ti-6Al-4V试块中晶粒的微观结构及取向分布
Fig.2
Inverse pole figures (IPFs) paralleling to axis Z (a1, b1), IPFs of reconstructed phase β (a2, b2), orientation distribution function (ODF) maps of phase β (a3, b3), and ODF maps of phase α (a4, b4) of AM Ti-6Al-4V sample A (a1-a4) and sample B (b1-b4) (θ—Euler angle)
根据
使用AZtecCrystal软件对EBSD结果进行分析,得到Euler角的分布结果,如图3所示。根据Euler角的分布,计算得到试块A中α相和β相的σα 和σβ 分别为(0.39, 0.23, 0.03)和(0.79, 0.01, 0.11),而试块B的σα 和σβ 分别为(0.38, 0.24, 0.04)和(1.04, 0.02, 0.09)。
图3
图3
AM Ti-6Al-4V试块Euler角(θ)的概率密度分布图
Fig.3
Probability density distribution map of θ in AM Ti-6Al-4V sample
2.2 微纳CT实验
图4
图4
AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的孔隙重构
Fig.4
Pore reconfigurations of AM Ti-6Al-4V sample A (a) and sample B (b)
图5
图5
AM Ti-6Al-4V试块孔隙体积和球度的概率密度分布图
Fig.5
Probability density distribution maps of pore volume (a) and sphericity (b) in AM Ti-6Al-4V samples (Inset in Fig.5a shows the locally enlarged map)
2.3 力学实验
表3 AM Ti-6Al-4V试块在不同方向的最大载荷和Young's模量
Table 3
| Sample | Direction | Pmax / kN | γ / GPa |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | Horizontal | 14.52 | 109.46 |
| Vertical | 13.88 | 125.11 | |
| B | Horizontal | 15.56 | 115.56 |
| Vertical | 16.09 | 126.12 |
2.4 超声实验
式中,
表4 超声实验测得AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的等效弹性刚度张量( Ceff) (GPa)
Table 4
| Sample | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | 142.7 ± 1.0 | 143.4 ± 0.2 | 137.4 ± 0.4 | 44.1 ± 0.7 | 44.6 ± 0.4 | 43.2 ± 0.4 |
| B | 169.4 ± 0.7 | 168.6 ± 0.7 | 171.6 ± 0.1 | 47.1 ± 2.2 | 46.8 ± 2.1 | 45.2 ± 1.2 |
3 分析与讨论
3.1 MMT理论模型结果
正交各向异性材料的Young's模量与等效弹性柔度张量( Seff)之间的关系可表示为[33]:
式中,
图6
图6
MMT模型得到的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的 Ceff
Fig.6
图7
图7
MMT模型与稀疏法得到的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块的 Ceff
Fig.7
3.2 理论模型与拉伸实验结果对比
试块A和B在水平和垂直方向之间的力学性能存在差异,因此用拉伸Young's模量差值比(tensile modulus difference ratio,TDR)来定量评估其差异性[36]:
式中,TSh、TSv分别代表沿着AM Ti-6Al-4V试块水平方向和垂直方向的拉伸Young's模量。
为了准确评估MMT模型理论结果与超声测量结果、拉伸实验结果之间的差异,引入平均绝对百分比误差(mean absolute percentage error,MAPE)和均等系数(equal coefficient,EC) 2个评价指标[37]:
式中,
试块A和B的TDR分别为12.51%和8.33%,该结果表明试块B的孔隙率较低,其各向异性程度较小,这与试块的超声检测结果相符合。表5列出了基于Voigt (V)、Reuss (R)和Hill (H)模型进行基体均匀化的MMT模型、稀疏法与拉伸实验的结果,以及每种方法的评价指标。基于本工作理论模型(V-MMT)所得试块A和B的Young's模量和拉伸实验结果的MAPE分别为0.87%和2.51%,EC分别为99.51%和98.20%。在试块A的评估中,V-MMT模型预测结果与拉伸实验结果吻合度最高,且MMT模型在预测精度上更具优越性;试块B的MAPE所呈现结论与试块A一致,但EC显示基于Hill模型的稀疏法所得结果最佳,值得注意的是,6种模型所得指标结果的差异性并不显著。
表5 基于MMT模型和稀疏法以及拉伸实验测得的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块不同方向的Young's模量及其平均绝对百分比误差(MAPE)和均等系数(EC)
Table 5
| Sample | Indicator | Horizontal γ / GPa | Vertical γ / GPa | MAPE / % | EC / % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | V-MMT | 107.86 | 124.76 | 0.87 | 99.51 |
| R-MMT | 104.16 | 121.66 | 3.80 | 98.06 | |
| H-MMT | 106.02 | 123.21 | 2.33 | 98.80 | |
| V-SM | 107.41 | 122.61 | 1.93 | 99.02 | |
| R-SM | 103.74 | 119.48 | 4.86 | 97.53 | |
| H-SM | 105.58 | 121.05 | 3.40 | 98.28 | |
| Tensile test | 109.46 | 125.11 | |||
| B | V-MMT | 115.46 | 132.25 | 2.51 | 98.20 |
| R-MMT | 110.61 | 128.23 | 2.98 | 98.42 | |
| H-MMT | 111.55 | 129.00 | 2.93 | 98.49 | |
| V-SM | 114.99 | 132.35 | 2.72 | 98.19 | |
| R-SM | 110.58 | 127.82 | 2.83 | 98.45 | |
| H-SM | 112.80 | 130.10 | 2.77 | 98.59 | |
| Tensile test | 115.56 | 126.12 |
Note: V, R, and H refer to Voigt, Reuss, and Hill, respectively
对比结果表明,尽管存在一定差异,但V-MMT预测的Young's模量与拉伸实验结果表现出高度一致性。此外,孔隙率高的试块A的理论结果比试块B吻合度更好,这可能是因为不同的打印参数会导致层与层之间的熔合程度不同,而理论模型并未考虑打印试块的层间结合,从而影响了预测结果[38]。
3.3 理论模型与超声实验对比
基于MMT模型所得试块A和B的 Ceff与超声实验所得结果的MAPE分别为9.47%和4.45%,EC分别为94.35%和98.49%,试块A的误差明显大于试块B (表6)。这种现象是由于随着孔隙率的增加,超声声速对孔隙形貌、尺寸等的敏感性增强。即使在相同的孔隙率下,孔隙形貌的随机变化也可能导致纵波波速出现波动;且分布函数以及计算过程中模型的简化也可能会引入部分误差。
表6 基于MMT模型和超声实验获得的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块 Ceff及其MAPE和EC
Table 6
| Sample | Indicator | GPa | GPa | GPa | GPa | GPa | GPa | MAPE % | EC % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | V-MMT | 152.60 | 163.09 | 157.36 | 48.42 | 40.50 | 44.06 | 9.47 | 94.35 |
| Ultrasonic | 143.68 | 143.23 | 136.92 | 44.11 | 44.98 | 43.18 | |||
| B | V-MMT | 165.65 | 175.67 | 170.34 | 51.25 | 43.31 | 46.97 | 4.45 | 98.49 |
| Ultrasonic | 169.43 | 169.60 | 171.60 | 47.09 | 46.79 | 45.21 |
综上所述,MMT模型在预测AM Ti-6Al-4V合金力学性能方面具有较高的准确性和可靠性。在后续的研究中,为了实现材料微观结构的超声无损检测评估,将建立基于超声声速的模型,用以反演材料孔隙率和各向异性程度,以期能够快速、准确地评价材料的使用性能,这对于材料的研发和生产具有重要的实际指导意义。此外,本工作使用的单晶弹性常数[19]可能与实际值有误差,因此有必要分析该误差在细观力学模型中的误差传播规律。可见,深入探究单晶弹性常数等关键参数如何对MMT模型预测结果产生不确定性影响也是未来的重要工作之一,可为相关领域的研究与应用提供更加坚实的理论基础。
4 结论
(1) 通过对比拉伸实验所得Young's模量和超声实验得到的 Ceff,发现具有较高孔隙率的试块在不同方向上的Young's模量呈现出更加明显的差异,这表明增材制造金属材料的各向异性随孔隙率的增加而增强。
(2) 当孔隙率小于15%时,迭代次数对 Ceff的影响微弱;随孔隙率的增加,迭代次数越多,迭代结果与未迭代结果的差距呈先增大后减小趋势。将孔隙分为球形孔和椭球孔添加时,MMT模型的迭代超过20次时 Ceff趋于稳定。
(3) 对于孔隙率高的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块,基于Voigt均匀化模型的MMT法在预测精度上相较于稀疏法更具优势。
(4) 不同孔隙率和织构的AM Ti-6Al-4V试块,基于MMT模型得到的Young's模量与拉伸实验结果的MAPE分别为0.87%和2.51%,EC分别为99.51%和98.20%;基于MMT模型得到的 Ceff与超声实验结果的MAPE分别为9.47%和4.45%,EC分别为94.35%和98.49%。且孔隙率小的试块超声检测误差更小,这可能是由于孔隙取向、形貌对超声声速造成的影响。
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