Research Status and Prospects of Additive Manufacturing/Hot Isostatic Pressing Integrated Forming for Difficult-to-Machine Metals

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00381

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (5): 770-784 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00381

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Research Status and Prospects of Additive Manufacturing/Hot Isostatic Pressing Integrated Forming for Difficult-to-Machine Metals

SHI Yusheng¹, CHENG Kun¹, ZHANG Chengjian¹, LU Jiahao¹, LI Wei², ZHANG Lichao¹, WEI Qingsong¹, CAI Chao¹(

)

1 State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, China

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SHI Yusheng, CHENG Kun, ZHANG Chengjian, LU Jiahao, LI Wei, ZHANG Lichao, WEI Qingsong, CAI Chao. Research Status and Prospects of Additive Manufacturing/Hot Isostatic Pressing Integrated Forming for Difficult-to-Machine Metals. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(5): 770-784.

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Abstract

Difficult-to-machine metals typically possess unique physical and mechanical properties, such as high-temperature stability, high specific stiffness, and lightweight characteristics. These metals hold strategic significance for high-end equipment sectors such as aerospace, energy and power, and marine engineering. This study systematically reviews the research progress and development trends in the integrated additive manufacturing/hot isostatic pressing (AM/HIP) forming technology for difficult-to-machine metals. The study focuses on the following four typical materials: (i) Be and its alloys, (ii) Ti₂AlNb alloys, (iii) nickel-based superalloys with high Ti/Al content, and (iv) metal matrix composites. This study provides an in-depth analysis of the bottlenecks encountered in conventional processing, such as high forming difficulty, low material utilization, and poor microstructural homogeneity. Furthermore, the study highlights key research breakthroughs in the integrated AM/HIP technology, including multiscale HIP simulation, compensation design methods for capsule structures, AM of high-precision and high-density thin-walled capsules, and AM of high-strength soluble ceramic cores. A comparative analysis is performed on the advantages of the technology in the near-net shaping, microstructural homogenization, and performance optimization of components made from difficult-to-machine materials. Finally, future developments for the technology are outlined, including scientific capsule design, intelligent process control for capsule AM, and synergistic optimization of ceramic core properties. This study provides theoretical support and practical pathways to promote the innovative development of HIP forming technology, expanding its application in the near-final forming of complex components made from difficult-to-machine metals, and offering technical assistance for the manufacturing of core components in key sectors in China, such as aerospace and defense equipment.

Key words: difficult-to-machine metal hot isostatic pressing additive manufacturing near-net shape

Received: 24 November 2025

ZTFLH:

TF125

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(U22A20192);National Natural Science Foundation of China(52375335);State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy Foundation of Central South University(Sklpm-KF-2025010)

Corresponding Authors: CAI Chao, associate professor, Tel: (027)87557155, E-mail: chaocai@hust.edu.cn

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	SHI Yusheng
	CHENG Kun
	ZHANG Chengjian
	LU Jiahao
	LI Wei
	ZHANG Lichao
	WEI Qingsong
	CAI Chao

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00381 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I5/770

Fig.1 Typical applications of difficult-to-machine metals

Fig.2 Schematic of additive manufacturing/hot isostatic pressing (AM/HIP) integrated process

Material category

Grade or composition

Advantageous performance

Difficult to process characteristics

Application

Be and Be alloy

S-200F^[29]

(Be ≥ 98.5%),

AlBeMet 162^[30]

(Be-38Al)

(1) Specific stiffness: 86-164 GPa·cm³·g^-1

(2) Thermal conductivity:210-220 W·m^-1·K^-1

(3) Coefficient of thermal expansion: (11.5-13.9) × 10^-6 K^-1

(4) Infrared reflectance: 98%-99%

(1) Low ductility and prone to cracking during casting

(2) High intrinsic brittleness and prone to cracking during machining

(3) Highly toxic and constrained in supply; fully enclosed processing and strict protection are required, leading to high cost and limited capacity

(1) Aerospace field: inertial navigation platforms, gyro components, and lightweight load bearing structures with high stiffness

(2) Optics and semiconductor equipment field: metal mirrors for infrared and astronomical telescopes, EUV lithography mirror substrates

(3) Nuclear and extreme thermal environments: first wall or plasma facing materials for fusion devices and high heat flux thermal management components

Ti₂AlNb alloy

Ti-22Al-25Nb^[31],

Ti-45Al-5Nb-0.3 W^[32],

Ti-22Al-25Nb^[33],

Ti₂AlNb^[34]

(1) Ultimate tensile strength: 880-937 MPa at 650 ^oC

(2) Elongation: 137%-167% at 900 ^oC

(3) Fatigue limit: 400-470 MPa at 650-700 ^oC, 10⁷ cyc

(4) Creep life: 201 h (550 ^oC, 600 MPa)

(1) Severe cracking is commonly observed during rapid solidification

(2) Process control is challenging, resulting in frequent internal defects in formed parts

(1) Aeroengine field: multiple key components such as aeroengine forgings and blade billets

(2) Medical field: orthopedic hard tissue repair devices such as artificial joints, spinal fusion cages, and bone plates

Ni based superalloy with high Ti and Al contents

CMSX-4^[37,40],

IN738LC^[35],

CM247LC^[36],

Mar-M247^[38,39]

(1) Ultimate tensile strength: 1050-1150 MPa at 750 ^oC

(2) Elongation: 45.5%-55.4% at 900 ^oC

(3) High temperature fatigue limit: 280-320 MPa at 750 ^oC, 10⁷ cyc

(4) Creep life: 320 h at 800 ^oC, 250 MPa

(1) Wide solidification range; the interdendritic liquid film readily induces hot tearing

(2) High thermal gradients and rapid cooling generate significant residual stress and cause cracking

(3) Process control is difficult, making it hard to obtain the desired microstructure directly

(1) Aeroengine field: standard material for high pressure turbine of 4th and 5th generation high thrust turbofan engines, also used for combustors, guide vanes, and related parts

(2) Domestic aero power field: “Taihang” series military turbofan engines

(3) Energy field: suitable for supercritical power plant boiler superheaters

Metal matrix composites

55%^*SiC/Al^[41],

60%^*diamond/Cu^[42],

65%^*SiC/Cu^[43],

30%^*B₄C/Al^[44]

(1) Coefficient of thermal expansion: (6-15.8) × 10^-6 K^-1

(2) Thermal conductivity: 400-900 W·m^-1·K^-1

(3) Elastic modulus: 180-472 GPa at RT

(1) Large thermal expansion mismatch between ceramic reinforcement and metal matrix; solidification easily produces thermal stress and induces cracking or porosity

(2) High ceramic fraction leads to brittleness and poor plasticity; severe tool wear during machining and frequent tool chipping

(1) Aerospace field: load bearing and frequently disassembled parts such as aircraft ventral fin skins, fuel inlet covers, internal guide rails, and angle stiffeners

(2) Precision instruments field: load bearing components such as gimbals, brackets, and instrument bay sections for strategic missile systems, as well as laser gyro cavities and optical support structures

(3) Thermal management field: housings and bases for radar T/R modules, baseplates for IGBT power modules, and thin wall packages for optoelectronic and optical communication devices

Table 1 Advantageous performances, process characteristics, and applications of typical difficult-to-machine materials^[29~44]

Fig.3 Radar chart for multi-dimensional comparison of difficult-to-machine materials formed by different processes

Fig.4 Research breakthrough points in AM/HIP integrated forming technology (DEM—discrete element method, FEM—finite element method)

Fig.5 Schematic of capsule deformation simulation and compensation design for HIP

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