A Review on the Evolution Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies of Secondary Phases in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Nickel-Based Superalloys

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00209

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (7): 1147-1162 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00209

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A Review on the Evolution Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies of Secondary Phases in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Nickel-Based Superalloys

PENG Wangjun¹, WANG Changhe², DU Dafan¹(

), DONG Anping¹(

), CHEN Biao³, SUN Baode¹

1 Shanghai Key Laboratory of Advanced High Temperature Materials and Precision Forming, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
2 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201600, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China

Cite this article:

PENG Wangjun, WANG Changhe, DU Dafan, DONG Anping, CHEN Biao, SUN Baode. A Review on the Evolution Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies of Secondary Phases in Laser Powder Bed Fusion Nickel-Based Superalloys. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(7): 1147-1162.

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Abstract

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) offers high forming precision and the ability to manufacture complex structures, providing a new paradigm for the microstructural design of nickel-based superalloys. However, the rapid cooling and interlayer reheating inherent to LPBF lead to significant deviations in the evolution of secondary phases compared with traditional processes. This study systematically reviews the formation and evolution mechanisms of various secondary phases (γ′ phase, γ″ phase, topologically close-packed (TCP) phase, MC/M₂₃C₆ carbides, and dispersed oxides) in LPBF-fabricated nickel-based alloys, and establishes a causal framework linking process parameters, melt pool behavior, solidification substructure, and precipitation. The study reveals that nonequilibrium segregation and cyclic thermal history induce dissolution, reprecipitation, coarsening sequences, and a precipitation gradient along the build direction. By integrating experimental, heat treatment, and multiscale simulation results, a heat treatment window is identified to stabilize γ′/γ″ phase and suppress Laves/δ/TCP phases. The contributions of carbides and oxides to grain boundary pinning and high-temperature stability, coupled with the risks of embrittlement associated with excessive coarsening, are discussed. The synergistic secondary effects of γ′/γ″ phase on creep and fatigue performance, along with the service risks arising from the transformation of γ″ phase into δ phase, are also elucidated. Furthermore, the cooperative effects of hot isostatic pressing, aging, and scanning strategies on precipitation homogenization and defect mitigation are examined. Finally, key challenges and future development paths in multiphase cooperative control, multiscale prediction, and integrated process-microstructure-property design are proposed.

Key words: nickel-based superalloy laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) heat treatment secondary phase evolution mechanism

Received: 29 July 2025

ZTFLH:

TG132.3

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(52071205);Key Laboratory of Solidification Te-chnology Open Project(SKLSP202214)

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	PENG Wangjun
	WANG Changhe
	DU Dafan
	DONG Anping
	CHEN Biao
	SUN Baode

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00209 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I7/1147

Fig.1 Schematic of manufacturing process (a) and mechanisms of secondary phases (b) of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF)

Fig.2 Formation and regulation of secondary phases in nickel-based superalloys by LPBF
(a) schematic of the formation path of secondary phases (TCP—topologically close-packed)
(b) evolution of secondary phases^[7,24,29]
(c) regulation of secondary phases through heat treatments^[40] (HT1, HT2—aging heat treatments; w—mass fraction)

Table 1 Defect types, causes, and chemical inhomogeneity (element segregation) in nickel-based superalloys by LPBF

Fig.3 Morphology and distribution characteristics of secondary phases^{[64,69,74,82,86]}
(a) types of secondary phases (b) γ′ phase^[64] (c) γ′′ phase^[69] (D_i—average particle size)
(d) carbides^[74] (e) oxides^[82] (f) TCP phase^[86]

Fig.4 Distribution and phase evolution laws of the secondary phase
(a) oxide distribution^[103]
(b) phase transformation during heat treatment^[6] (DA—direct aging, HDA—homogenizing + DA)
(c) phase transformation during solid solution-aging heat treatment^[104]
(d) in situ oxide formation^[105]

Fig.5 Correspondence diagram of process parameters, microstructure evolution, and performance response (TB—twin boundary, T_onset—onset temperature, T_peak—peak temperature)

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