Corresponding authors:WU Xinqiang, professor, Tel:(024)23915898, E-mail:xqwu@imr.ac.cn
Received:2025-09-30Revised:2026-02-07
Fund supported:
Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences(XDA0410000) National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFB3702201) National Key Research and Development Program of China(2021YFB-3702202) National Natural Science Foundation of China(U23B2074)
Corrosion fatigue is a typical failure mode of metallic materials subjected to the combined effects of cyclic loading and corrosive environments. It is widely observed in critical fields such as nuclear power, marine engineering, aerospace, and energy equipment, and directly affects the service safety and life assessment of engineering components. With the advancement of advanced energy systems operating in extreme environments such as deep space, deep sea, and deep earth, materials increasingly experience severe environmental-mechanical coupling damage. Among these environments, high-temperature pressurized water, liquid lead-bismuth, and marine conditions represent typical corrosive systems. Therefore, understanding and predicting the corrosion fatigue behavior of metallic materials under these conditions is of considerable importance. This paper reviews recent research progress on corrosion fatigue experimental techniques, damage mechanisms, and prediction models for metallic materials in the three representative corrosive environments mentioned above. Regarding experimental techniques, particular attention is given to the development of fatigue testing devices capable of simulating service environments, as well as in situ monitoring methods for specimen strain/displacement and crack length. In terms of damage mechanisms, the competition and synergistic interactions among several mechanisms are discussed, including stress concentration at corrosion pits, rupture of protective films and slip dissolution, hydrogen ingress and hydrogen-induced damage, and reductions in surface energy. For prediction models, the evolution from traditional empirical models, such as the Basquin and Coffin-Manson models, to data-driven machine learning approaches is summarized. The limitations of current models in terms of engineering applicability and integration of physical mechanisms are also highlighted. Furthermore, this paper discusses major challenges in the field, including the lack of experimental techniques for emerging extreme environments, insufficient understanding of multimechanism coupled damage theories, and the absence of high-precision life prediction models under small-sample conditions. Future research directions are proposed, including the development of cross-scale in situ characterization techniques, the integration of physical mechanisms with machine learning methods, and the advancement of design and evaluation systems for materials resistant to corrosion fatigue.
WU Xinqiang, TAN Jibo, ZHANG Ziyu, XUE Baoquan, KE Wei. Research Advance on Corrosion Fatigue Behavior of Metallic Materials in High-Temperature Pressurized Water, Liquid Pb-Bi, and Marine Environments[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica, 2026, 62(5): 822-834 DOI:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00302
Fig.3
Schematics of protective film rupture and slip dissolution model of austenitic stainless steel in a high-temperature, pressurized water environment[11] (DO—dissolved oxygen, PWR—pressurized water reactor, BWR—boiling water reactor, PSBs—persistence slip bands)
Fig.5
Adsorption states of lead and bismuth atoms on the microstructure interface near the crack tip[21]
(a) Pb-Bi clusters and superstructures (Inset illustrates the adsorption configurations of Pb/Bi atoms, with green spheres representing Pb/Bi atoms and gray spheres representing the Fe atoms of the substrate)
(b) atomic-level energy spectrum of the segregation state of Pb/Bi atoms
Differences of corrosion fatigue behaviors among 316LN base metal, 316LN heat-affected zone and 308L weld metal in a safe-end weld joint in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
Role of welding residual strain and ductility dip cracking on corrosion fatigue behavior of alloy 52/52M dissimilar metal weld in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
Corrosion fatigue behavior of Alloy 52/52M dissimilar metal weld (DMW) was investigated in borated and lithiated high-temperature water. The fatigue life of Alloy 52/52M DMW in high-temperature water decreased in comparison with that in air. The fatigue cracks initiated at Alloy 52M butt weld or at the interface of Alloy 52 buttering and Alloy 52M butt weld. The welding residual strain and ductility dip cracking in Alloy 52M butt weld promoted the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. The environmentally assisted fatigue damage in high-temperature water is discussed by taking account of microstructure defects.
TanJ B, ZhangZ Y, ZhengH, et al.
Corrosion fatigue model of austenitic stainless steels used in pressurized water reactor nuclear power plants
The corrosion fatigue (CF) behavior and crack tip characteristic of 316LN stainless steel in 325 degrees C water at different strain rates were investigated under a strain amplitude of 0.6%. With decreasing the strain rate from 0.4% s(-1) to 0.0004% s(-1), the CF life decreased linearly in log-log plot. More obvious reduction of CF life at low strain rate was due to the environmental damage. The morphology of cracks and the dislocation density near the crack-tip front exhibit a significant different under different strain rate conditions. The hydrogen enhanced localized plasticity mechanism is discussed to explain the micro-damage process at different strain rates in high-temperature water. (C) 2019 Elsevier B.V.
ZhangZ Y, TanJ B, WuX Q, et al.
Effects of temperature on corrosion fatigue behavior of 316LN stainless steel in high-temperature pressurized water
Influence of temperature on corrosion fatigue (CF) behavior of 316LN stainless steel in high-temperature pressurized water was investigated from 373 K to 598 K at a strain rate of 0.04%s(-1). It is found that the CF life of 316LN stainless steel decreases with increasing temperature in water environment. The relationship between the reciprocal of temperature and the logarithm of fatigue life was found to be linear. Mechanisms involving temperature effects on CF crack initiation are discussed and a linear CF model to account for the above temperature effects of CF life is proposed.
ZhangZ Y, TanJ B, WuX Q, et al.
Synergistic effect of mechanical and environmental damages of 316LN stainless steel under different fatigue strain amplitudes in high-temperature pressurized water
ASTM. ASTM E466-21 Standard practice for conducting force controlled constant amplitude axial fatigue tests of metallic materials [S]. West Conshohocken: ASTM, 2021
Research on the pitting behavior of high nitrogen austenitic stainless steel 316LN in sodium chloride solution by using modified potentiostatic pulse test
Materials reliability program: Effects of hydrogen, pH, lithium and boron on primary water stress corrosion crack initiation in alloy 600 for temperatures in the range 320-330 oC (MRP-147)
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Aluminium alloys have been integral to numerous engineering applications due to their favourable strength, weight, and corrosion resistance combination. However, the performance of these alloys in coastal environments is a critical concern, as the interplay between fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth rate under such conditions remains relatively unexplored. This comprehensive review addresses this research gap by analysing the intricate relationship between fatigue crack propagation, fracture toughness, and challenging coastal environmental conditions. In view of the increasing utilisation of aluminium alloys in coastal infrastructure and maritime industries, understanding their behaviour under the joint influences of cyclic loading and corrosive coastal atmospheres is imperative. The primary objective of this review is to synthesise the existing knowledge on the subject, identify research gaps, and propose directions for future investigations. The methodology involves an in-depth examination of peer-reviewed literature and experimental studies. The mechanisms driving fatigue crack initiation and propagation in aluminium alloys exposed to saltwater, humidity, and temperature variations are elucidated. Additionally, this review critically evaluates the impact of coastal conditions on fracture toughness, shedding light on the vulnerability of aluminium alloys to sudden fractures in such environments. The variability of fatigue crack growth rates and fracture toughness values across different aluminium alloy compositions and environmental exposures was discussed. Corrosion–fatigue interactions emerge as a key contributor to accelerated crack propagation, underscoring the need for comprehensive mitigation strategies. This review paper highlights the pressing need to understand the behaviour of aluminium alloys under coastal conditions comprehensively. By revealing the existing research gaps and presenting an integrated overview of the intricate mechanisms at play, this study aims to guide further research and engineering efforts towards enhancing the durability and safety of aluminium alloy components in coastal environments.
CaoA G, ZongH, LiuX X, et al.
Application of 15-5PH stainless steel fasteners in high seawater salt fog environment
Different components of deep-sea submersibles, such as the pressure hull, are usually subjected to intermittent loading, dwell loading, and unloading during service. Therefore, for the design and reliability assessment of structural parts under dwell fatigue loading, understanding the effects of intermittent loading time on dwell fatigue behavior of the alloys is essential. In this study, the effects of the intermittent loading time and stress ratio on dwell fatigue behavior of the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V ELI were investigated. Results suggest that the dwell fatigue failure modes of Ti-6Al-4V ELI can be classified into three types, i.e., fatigue failure mode, ductile failure mode, and mixed failure mode. The intermittent loading time does not affect the dwell fatigue behavior, whereas the stress ratio significantly affects the dwell fatigue life and dwell fatigue mechanism. The dwell fatigue life increases with an increase in the stress ratio for the same maximum stress, and specimens with a negative stress ratio tend to undergo ductile failure. The mechanism of dwell fatigue of titanium alloys is attribute to an increase in the plastic strain caused by the part of the dwell loading, thereby resulting in an increase in the actual stress of the specimens during the subsequent loading cycles and aiding the growth of the formed crack or damage, along with the local plastic strain or damage induced by the part of the fatigue load promoting the cumulative plastic strain during the dwell fatigue process. The interaction between dwell loading and fatigue loading accelerates specimen failure, in contrast to the case for individual creep or fatigue loading alone. The dwell fatigue life and cumulative maximum strain during the first loading cycle could be correlated by a linear relationship on the log-log scale. This relationship can be used to evaluate the dwell fatigue life of Ti alloys with the maximum stress dwell.
JinY, LiuR, CuiY, et al.
Study on corrosion fatigue of Ti-6Al-4V alloy under hydrostatic pressure environment in 3.5 % NaCl solution
Deep sea, with rich oil, gas, and mineral resources, plays an increasingly crucial role in scientific and industrial realms. However, the highly corrosive feature of deep sea hinders further exploration and development, which requires metal materials with robust corrosion resistance. This review covers an in-depth and all-around overview of the up-to-date advances in corrosion and protection of metals in deep-sea environment. Firstly, the unique characteristics of deep-sea environment are summarized in detail. Subsequently, the corrosion performances of metals in both <em>in situ</em> and simulated deep-sea environments are illustrated systematically. Furthermore, corrosion prevent strategies of metals, including sacrificial anode protection, organic coatings, as well as coatings achieved by physical vapor deposition (PVD coatings), are highlighted. Finally, we outline current challenges and development trends of corrosion and protection of metals in deep-sea environment in the future. The purpose of this review is not only to summarize the recent progress on metal corrosion and protection in deep sea, but also to aid us in understanding them more comprehensively and deeply in a short time, so as to boost their fast development.
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Tribocorrosion of 316L stainless steel by in-situ electrochemical methods under deep-sea high hydrostatic pressure environment
A comprehensive review on hydrogen permeation barrier in the hydrogen transportation pipeline: Mechanism, application, preparation, and recent advances
Hydrogen embrittlement is a complex phenomenon, involving several length- and timescales, that affects a large class of metals. It can significantly reduce the ductility and load-bearing capacity and cause cracking and catastrophic brittle failures at stresses below the yield stress of susceptible materials. Despite a large research effort in attempting to understand the mechanisms of failure and in developing potential mitigating solutions, hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms are still not completely understood. There are controversial opinions in the literature regarding the underlying mechanisms and related experimental evidence supporting each of these theories. The aim of this paper is to provide a detailed review up to the current state of the art on the effect of hydrogen on the degradation of metals, with a particular focus on steels. Here, we describe the effect of hydrogen in steels from the atomistic to the continuum scale by reporting theoretical evidence supported by quantum calculation and modern experimental characterisation methods, macroscopic effects that influence the mechanical properties of steels and established damaging mechanisms for the embrittlement of steels. Furthermore, we give an insight into current approaches and new mitigation strategies used to design new steels resistant to hydrogen embrittlement.
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Hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity—A mechanism for hydrogen-related fracture
The environment at crack tip and its effect on the crack growth behaviour of low alloy steel- E690 steel were studied at cathodic potentials in artificial seawater. The results showed that the micro environment at crack tip and crack growth behaviour were related to the electrochemical reactions at crack tip, which were affected by the stress state and applied potentials. The crack tip environment was acidified under cyclic loading, resulting from the crack tip anodic dissolution reaction and corresponding hydrolysis reaction. Because of the hydrogen evolution and the inhibited anodic dissolution inside the crack, the crack tip pH increases as the cathodic potential decreases. The effect of cathodic potentials on the electrochemical reactions caused the variation of the hydrogen content, which influenced the crack growth rate because the crack growth behaviour was controlled by hydrogen embrittlement mechanism. This resulted in a fact that with the negative decrease of potential, the crack growth rate first decreased and then increased, with the minimum rate at -0.75 V. And the crack growth path exhibited transgranular fracture.
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Perspective review on factors that influence the stress corrosion of Ti alloys for deep-sea applications
This paper reviews the current state of knowledge and advances on the stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) of Ti alloys subject to harsh corrosive environments in the deep sea, and presents the knowledge gaps and future directions. A comprehensive review of classifications and applications of Ti alloys for deep-sea engineering indicates that the near-<em>α</em> and <em>α</em> + <em>β</em> Ti alloys with high strength and great weldability are the primary selection for deep-sea equipment. The role of residual stress, microstructure types, alloying elements and corrosive environmental factors on SCC performance of Ti alloys are also summarised. It is revealed that the Ti alloys with Widmanstatten structure show the lowest SCC susceptibility, and alloying of Nb, Mo and Al elements plays a positive role in the boost corrosion resistance of passive film. Synergistic effects of environmental deep-sea factors include high hydrostatic pressure, low dissolved oxygen content, low temperature and decreasing pH levels intensify the SCC of Ti alloys by inducing local dissolution of the passive film and facilitating hydrogen-induced cracking at crack tip. The study also highlights future research requirements in SCC of Ti alloys in deep sea: including the set-up of unified and suitable methods of <em>in-situ</em> and simulated experiments, modeling and predicting of SCC behaviour in real situations, and exploring practical protective strategies specifically. These findings provide a reference for further SCC mechanisms research and promote the microstructure optimisation and performance improvement of the advanced Ti alloy-based material systems for deep-sea engineering.
KomodaR, KubotaM, StaykovA, et al.
Effect of water temperature in the deep sea on the mitigation of hydrogen embrittlement by O2 impurity
The phenomenon of cumulative damage under repeated loads was assumed to be related to the net work absorbed by a specimen. The number of loading cycles applied expressed as a percentage of the number to failure at a given stress level would be the proportion of useful life expended. When the total damage, as defined by this concept, reached 100 per cent, the fatigue specimen should fail. Experimental verification of this concept for an aluminum alloy, using different types of specimens, various stress ratios, and various combinations of loading cycles is presented. These data are also analyzed to provide information on different stress ratios when an S-N curve for any one ratio is known. Results of a sample analysis based on experiments are given. It is concluded that a simple and conservative analysis is possible using the concept of cumulative fatigue damage.
Methods are described for constructing a fatigue curve based on strain-fatigue data for use in pressure vessel design. When this curve is used, the same fatigue strength-reduction factor should be used for low-cycle as for high-cycle conditions. When evaluating the effects of combined mean and alternating stress, the fatigue strength-reduction factor should be applied to both the mean and the alternating component, but then account must be taken of the reduction in mean stress which can be produced by yielding. The complete fatigue evaluation of a pressure vessel can be a major task for the designer, but it can be omitted, or at least drastically reduced, if certain requirements can be met regarding design details, inspection, and magnitude of transients. Although the emphasis in this paper is on pressure vessel design, the same principles could be applied to any structure made of ductile metal and subjected to limited numbers of load cycles.
WuX Q, RongL J, TanJ B, et al.
Research advance on liquid lead-bismuth eutectic corrosion resistant Si enhanced ferritic/martensitic and austenitic stainless steels
Structural materials are one of the major factors that restrict the lead-cooled fast reactor construction due to metallic elements that can dissolve in the liquid lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE), which may affect the structure's safety. T91 steel and 316 stainless steel are the leading structural materials for critical equipment such as fuel cladding, reactor vessels, and reactor core internals. The environmental compatibility of those steels with the liquid LBE needs to be systematically evaluated. However, T91 steel and 316 stainless steel suffer from rapid oxidation corrosion in oxygen-saturated LBE at 550oC. T91 steel's corrosion resistance in liquid LBE can be improved by decreasing the oxygen concentration (1.26 × 10-6%, mass fraction), but dissolved corrosion occurred at dissolved oxygen concentration below 1 × 10-6% for T91 steel and 316 stainless steel. T91 steel is sensitive to liquid metal embrittlement, significantly reducing its corrosion fatigue life in the liquid LBE. Compared to the standard (9%-12%)Cr ferritic/martensitic steel and 316 stainless steel, the microalloyed Si enhanced (9%-12%)Cr ferritic/martensitic steel (9Cr-Si and 12Cr-Si) and 316 stainless steel (ASS-Si) have good microstructural stability and comprehensive mechanical properties. The Si-rich oxide formation in liquid LBE improves the oxide film compactness and corrosion resistance. The dissolution corrosion was inhibited in static oxygen-saturation and oxygen-controlled (10-6%-10-7%) flowing liquid LBE (0.3 m/s) at 550oC for 9Cr-Si, 12Cr-Si, and ASS-Si. These alloys are expected to meet the design requirements for a lead-cooled fast reactor.
This paper reviews the state-of-the-art progress of research into corrosion fatigue on marine structures, both theoretical and experimental. This includes corrosion fatigue life prediction models/methods, load–environment interaction/coupling test methods, accelerated corrosion methods in corrosion fatigue testing, fatigue crack measurement, and corrosion fatigue life assessment in the whole life period. To date, some theoretical models and methods for predicting the corrosion fatigue life of metallic materials or structures have been proposed and applied. Meanwhile, load–environment interaction/coupling testing on metallic material specimens has been maturely developed and widely applied. Some newly developed corrosion fatigue theoretical and experimental methods, based on data-driven machine learning and at-sea monitoring, have received preliminary application. This review of accelerated corrosion methods, fatigue crack measurement methods, and corrosion fatigue life assessment for marine structures in the whole-life period has been undertaken by extensive reference to relevant studies conducted worldwide. Challenges and recommendations for further developing and improving corrosion fatigue assessment methods and test techniques are also reported and discussed.
FengS W, SunX Y, ChenG, et al.
LBE corrosion fatigue life prediction of T91 steel and 316 SS using machine learning method assisted by symbol regression
Effect of surface roughness on low-cycle fatigue behaviors of 316LN stainless steel in borated and lithiated high-temperature pressurized water
2022
Differences of corrosion fatigue behaviors among 316LN base metal, 316LN heat-affected zone and 308L weld metal in a safe-end weld joint in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
2021
Effects of welding columnar grain orientation and strain rate on corrosion fatigue behavior of alloy 52/52M weld metal in high-temperature water
Environmentally assisted fatigue behavior of 308L weld metal in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
2020
Effect of grain boundary engineering on corrosion fatigue behavior of 316LN stainless steel in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
2019
Role of welding residual strain and ductility dip cracking on corrosion fatigue behavior of alloy 52/52M dissimilar metal weld in borated and lithiated high-temperature water
2020
Corrosion fatigue model of austenitic stainless steels used in pressurized water reactor nuclear power plants
... [11]Schematics of protective film rupture and slip dissolution model of austenitic stainless steel in a high-temperature, pressurized water environment<sup>[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="R11">11</xref>]</sup> (DO—dissolved oxygen, PWR—pressurized water reactor, BWR—boiling water reactor, PSBs—persistence slip bands)Fig.3
Synergistic effect of mechanical and environmental damages of 316LN stainless steel under different fatigue strain amplitudes in high-temperature pressurized water
Adsorption states of lead and bismuth atoms on the microstructure interface near the crack tip<sup>[<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="R21">21</xref>]</sup>
(a) Pb-Bi clusters and superstructures (Inset illustrates the adsorption configurations of Pb/Bi atoms, with green spheres representing Pb/Bi atoms and gray spheres representing the Fe atoms of the substrate) ...
... [21]
(a) Pb-Bi clusters and superstructures (Inset illustrates the adsorption configurations of Pb/Bi atoms, with green spheres representing Pb/Bi atoms and gray spheres representing the Fe atoms of the substrate) ...
Research on the pitting behavior of high nitrogen austenitic stainless steel 316LN in sodium chloride solution by using modified potentiostatic pulse test
Materials reliability program: Effects of hydrogen, pH, lithium and boron on primary water stress corrosion crack initiation in alloy 600 for temperatures in the range 320-330 oC (MRP-147)
A comprehensive review on hydrogen permeation barrier in the hydrogen transportation pipeline: Mechanism, application, preparation, and recent advances
