Research Progress and Trends in Characterization Techniques for Ultra-High-Strength and Ultra-Fine Stainless Steel Wires: A Perspective Review

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00418

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (7): 1189-1206 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00418

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Research Progress and Trends in Characterization Techniques for Ultra-High-Strength and Ultra-Fine Stainless Steel Wires: A Perspective Review

YANG He¹^,², HOU Ziyong¹^,²^,³(

), HU Xingyi¹, CHENG Jinjun¹, WANG Yaru¹, FAN Guohua⁴(

), HUANG Xiaoxu²^,³(

)

1 International Joint Laboratory for Light Alloys (Ministry of Education), Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission for Advanced Equipment, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
3 Institute of Frontier Interdisciplinary Studies, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
4 Research Center for Light High-performance Materials, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China

Cite this article:

YANG He, HOU Ziyong, HU Xingyi, CHENG Jinjun, WANG Yaru, FAN Guohua, HUANG Xiaoxu. Research Progress and Trends in Characterization Techniques for Ultra-High-Strength and Ultra-Fine Stainless Steel Wires: A Perspective Review. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(7): 1189-1206.

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Abstract

Ultra-high-strength (≥ 3 GPa) and ultra-fine (diameter ≤ 16 μm) stainless steel wires are critical components in solar photovoltaic manufacturing, yet their domestic production poses distinct technical challenges. Countries such as Japan and Germany currently dominate this field, having developed the capability to manufacture wires with tensile strengths of ≥ 3.5 GPa and diameters of ≤ 11 μm. Localizing ultra-high-strength and ultra-fine stainless steel wire technology has therefore become an urgent priority. The extreme true strain and fine diameter attained through cold drawing produce a complex three-dimensional lamellar and heterogeneous microstructure that conventional two-dimensional characterization techniques cannot fully capture. Moreover, the absence of systematic three-dimensional characterization methodologies and standards further impedes localization efforts. This study presents a comprehensive overview of the characterization techniques currently employed for ultra-fine metallic wires and critically evaluates existing approaches for analyzing microstructure, mechanical properties, and performance, along with their respective limitations and strengths. The study also identifies opportunities for developing multiscale, three-dimensional in situ characterization techniques that would provide essential technical support and a theoretical foundation for optimizing wire performance and advancing localization.

Key words: ultra-fine wire characterization technique microstructure mechanical property performance three-dimensional orientation mapping in TEM

Received: 23 December 2025

ZTFLH:

TG142.1

Fund: National Key Research and Development Program of China(2024YFB3713703)

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	YANG He
	HOU Ziyong
	HU Xingyi
	CHENG Jinjun
	WANG Yaru
	FAN Guohua
	HUANG Xiaoxu

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00418 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I7/1189

Table 1 Samples and characterization methods for phase tra-nsformation behavior research of metallic wires with different diameters^{[7,9,24,26,29-32]}

Fig.1 Preparation processes of samples for phase transformation research of metallic wires and ultra-fine wires
(a, b) methods for obtaining 3 mm-diameter thin slices for wires with different diameters by nickel plating/copper plating (a) and other methods (b)
(c) twin-jet electropolishing (d) ion milling (e) focused ion beam (FIB)

Fig.2 Summary of inclusion and precipitate characterizations in metallic wires^{[9,13,24,26,29,32,38,47,48,53-56]} (Arrow in Fig.2a represents nano-scale inclusions) (a), and preparation process of 3DAPT needle specimen^[38] (b)

Fig.3 Simulations and TEM analyses of dislocations in different materials
(a) three-dimensional (3D) dislocation dynamics simulation results of dislocation microstructures for 600 nm diameter micropillars under tension after torsion^[65] (Red arrows and purple arrows indicate single arm operations and interactions between pre-existing dislocations and nucleated dislocations, respectively)
(b) HRTEM images showing the structure of two dislocation cell boundaries in the ferrite lamellae at a strain of 5.4^[46] (Frames and arrows show the dislocation core areas and extra atom planes, respectively)
(c) longitudinal TEM images revealing the dislocation arrangements of the sections of a 6.3 μm compressed pillar^[76] and a deformed W-coated pillar^[75]
(d1, d2) 3D character map showing the distribution of edge components around dislocation loop (d1) and 3D deviation map showing the deviation of local dislocation segments from the respective slip planes (

1 ¯

11) and (11

1 ¯

) (d2)^[81] (Inset in Fig.3d1 is TEM image of a top-viewed dislocation loop with b = a / 2[101]. b —Burgers vector, a—lattice constant)

Fig.4 Characterizations of grain size in metallic wires and ultra-fine wires^[9,21,92] (a-e) and schematic of sampling positions in wire sample preparation (f)
(a-c) OM (a)^[92], SEM (b), and EBSD (c)^[21] images showing grain size of wires
(d, e) TEM images of ferrite and austenite in 2507 DSS wires at ε = 5.01 (d) and ε = 6.65 (e)^[9] (ε—strain)

Fig.5 Characterizations and schematic of grain boundaries in metallic wires and ultra-fine wires (a, a1, a2) nanobeam diffraction patterns (a), TEM image (a1), and schematic (a2) of numbered cells in the ferrite lamellae at a strain of 5.4^[46] (Solid lines and dashed lines in Figs.5a1 and a2 represent cementite lamellae and dislocation cell boundaries, respectively) (b) TEM images and SAED pattern (inset) of the CoCrNi wire showing that the nano-twins could be cut up by the other direction micro-band after tensile test at liquid-nitrogen temperature^[32] (c) phase maps showing subgrain boundaries obtained via scanning nano-beam TEM diffraction for heat-treated nanocrystalline hypereutectoid steel wires in the transverse cross-section^[72] (d) overlay of projected 3D atom map and bright-field STEM image of a pearlitic steel atom probe specimen^[17] (Insets are corresponding nanobeam diffraction patterns. GB2—Σ3 coherent twin)

Fig.6 Analyses of textures in metallic wires and ultra-fine wires
(a) schematical positions showing orientation of 111 crystallographic axis of the grains with respect to the wire axis for a fractured wire^[102]
(b) schematical positions of EBSD maps and corresponding inverse pole figures near the edge and central region of the wires^[102]
(c) schematics of SEM sampling positions of a drawn fine high carbon steel wire^[45] (ND—normal direction, TD—transverse direction, RD—rolling direction, W—width)
(d) summary of texture study in wires and ultra-fine wires^{[14,15,20,29,45,69,71,90,96,111-116]} (NBD—nanobeam electron diffraction, SXRD—synchrotron X-ray diffraction, VPSC—visco-plastic self-consistent)

Table 2 Methods and results of mechanical properties of metallic wires and ultra-fine wires^{[18,21,56,61,63,96,98,117-121]}

Fig.7 Three-dimensional orientation mapping in TEM (3D-OMiTEM) characterizations of texture in ultra-fine wires
(a) reconstructed 3D orientation map of the gold nanoparticle film^[166] (mrd—multiples of random distribution)
(b) 3D-OMiTEM characterization of the deformation-induced structure changes in nanograined nickel^[168]

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