Research Status and Future Directions of Pure Mo and Mo-Based Biodegradable Metals

doi:10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00323

Acta Metall Sin

2026, Vol. 62

Issue (5): 905-922 DOI: 10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00323

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Research Status and Future Directions of Pure Mo and Mo-Based Biodegradable Metals

ZHENG Yufeng(

), SHEN Yunong

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

Cite this article:

ZHENG Yufeng, SHEN Yunong. Research Status and Future Directions of Pure Mo and Mo-Based Biodegradable Metals. Acta Metall Sin, 2026, 62(5): 905-922.

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Abstract

Mo, a trace element in the human body, has attracted increasing attention owing to its excellent mechanical properties, uniform degradation behavior, and favorable biocompatibility. The highlighted features make it a promising candidate for various biodegradable medical devices, including cardiovascular and neurovascular stents, cardiac pacemakers, gastrointestinal anastomotic staples, and wearable bioelectronic devices. Currently, Mo and its alloys have been developed as industrial materials and are well-established in aerospace, electronics, and chemical engineering. However, research on Mo and its alloys as biomaterials is an emerging field of study and faces several critical scientific challenges. In this review, we highlight Mo's intrinsic material characteristics, summarize traditional manufacturing methods and performance advantages, and outline its degradation mechanisms and biological responses in physiological environments. Furthermore, we propose design strategies for Mo-based biodegradable metals that consider biodegradability, biocompatibility, and the functional requirements of biodegradable implants, focusing on composition, microstructure, plastic deformation, and additive manufacturing. Finally, we discuss the future applications and developmental directions of Mo-based biodegradable metals in the field of biomaterials.

Key words: Mo biodegradable metal mechanical property biodegradation behavior biocompatibility

Received: 20 October 2025

ZTFLH:

TG146

Fund: National Natural Science Foundation of China(52531008)

Corresponding Authors: ZHENG Yufeng, professor, Tel: (010)62767411, E-mail: yfzheng@pku.edu.cn

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https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/10.11900/0412.1961.2025.00323 OR https://www.ams.org.cn/EN/Y2026/V62/I5/905

Fig.1 Study on the corrosion behavior of biodegradable molybdenum
(a) Pourbaix diagram of Mo-H₂O system (E—electrode potential, SCE—saturated calomel electrode)^[36]
(b) illustration of the biodegradation behavior of pure Mo in physiological environments and under simulated inflammatory conditions^[36]
(c) corrosion mechanism and corrosion evolution of selective laser melted (SLM) Mo along with immersion time, compared to those of rotary swaged (RS) Mo^[37]
(d) changes in surface chemistry and microstructure linked to Mo dissolution in de-ionized (DI) water^[38]

Fig.2 Research findings on endovascular implantation of metallic molybdenum (a, b) EDS analyses confirmed biodegradation product film formation^[73] (d—diameter) (c) immunofluorescence staining showed endothelial (CD31) and smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) responses around Mo and Pt implants^[73] (d, e) radiograph, µCT, and explant views revealed implant retention and vascular integration up to 12 months^[74] (f, g) hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) (f) and Masson staining (g) confirmed vascular tissue responses in rat abdominal aortae^[16] (AM—additive manufacturing) (h) SEM image (BSE mode) at 3 months demonstrated stent strut degradation with visible products^[16] (i) degradation products were characterized by SEM-EDS, TEM, EDS mapping, and SAED pattern of focused ion beam (FIB)-sampled regions^[16] (j) application of Mo wire braided stents and coils in treating intracranial ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes and schematic workflow for evaluating the histopathological and functional safety of Mo neuro-implant^[75] (tMCAO—transient middle cerebral artery occlusion) (k) in vivo neurological function effect of Mo braided stent wire^[75] (MCAO—middle cerebral artery occlusion model) (l) in vivo biosafety of 2D Mo coil^[75]

Fig.3 Transient electronic devices containing molybdenum thin films
(a) picture of bioresorbable temperature and pressure sensors (Inset shows an OM image of the serpentine silicon-nanomembrane structures)^[77]
(b) illustration of a bioresorbable sensor system within a rat's brain^[77]
(c) an actively multiplexed sensing device for high-resolution electrocorticography (ECoG) in a completely bioresorbable architecture is schematically illustrated in an exploded perspective^[79] (NM—nanomembranes, PLGA—poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid))
(d) OM images of two unit cells at different phases of manufacture and a photograph of the entire system^[79]
(e) schematic of a bendable ecoresorbable and bioresorbable microelectromechanical systems (eb-MEMS) platform (left) and photograph of the flexible system^[80] (The eb-MEMS is shown in the left inset, and the right inset demonstrates its conformal integration onto the curved surface of the myocardium. BN—bottom insulating layer, TP—top layer, MP—middle layer, CMOS—complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor)
(f) diagrammatic representations of a transitory, wireless, and battery-free electrotherapy device attached to a foot wound^[81]

Fig.4 Alloying design of Mo-based biodegradable metals based on element selection

Fig.5 Melting point-Moh's hardness diagram of common bio-safe biodegradable particles (HA—hydroxyapatite, $β$ -TCP— $β$ -tricalcium phosphate)

Fig.6 Experiment results on the application of molybdenum-containing biomaterials in orthopedic devices
(a) digital photographs and micro-CT analyses demonstrated superior osteochondral repair with 7.5Mo-BGC scaffolds versus blank and BGC groups at 12 weeks^[89] (BGC—bioactive glass ceramic)
(b) safranin O staining at week 12 revealed increased hyaline cartilage-like tissue in the 7.5Mo-BGC group^[89]
(c, d) micro-CT and 3D reconstructions confirmed scaffold retention, new bone formation, and bone ingrowth into Mo-scaffolds at 1 (c) and 8 (d) weeks^[90] (BG-scaffold—bioactive glass ceramic scaffold without molybdenum. Green arrows in Fig.6d show the newly formed bones)
(e) histological staining demonstrated newly formed bone-periodontal ligament-cementum complexes^[91] (BRH—bone regeneration height, CRH—cementum regeneration height, PD—probing depth, GR—gingival recession, AL—attachment loss, DH—distance from the cementoenamel junction to bottom of defect)
(f) immunofluorescence indicated periostin expression across regenerated periodontium^[91]
(g) histometric analyses revealed enhanced periodontal regeneration parameters^[91]
(h) immunofluorescence further showed expression of neuronal markers (CGRP, TRPV, and TRPM8) at bone-ligament and ligament-root interfaces^[91]
(i) immunofluorescence images of RAW 264.7 cells treated with Mmp9 inhibitor (Ilomastat)^[92] (R-Mo—rolled molybdenum, DAPI—4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, Mmp9—matrix metalloproteinase 9)
(j) schematic of macrophage-related inflammatory responses to degradation products of biodegradable molybdenum implants^[92]

Fig.7 Summaries of the mechanical properties of pure Mo and Mo-based alloy, other biodegradable metal and alloy, and CoCr alloy systems^[87,93-95] (a) and prospective medical applications of Mo-based biodegradable metals (GBR—guided bone regeneration) (b)

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